SU+ @ Strathmore 

University Library 
 

  
 

Electronic Theses and Dissertations 

 

 

This work is availed for free and open access by Strathmore University Library.  

It has been accepted for digital distribution by an authorized administrator of SU+ @Strathmore University. 

For more information, please contact library@strathmore.edu 

 

 
2025 

 

Decarbonization of urban road 

infrastructure using solar street lighting in 

Kenya: assessing implementation and 

impact. 

 

 
Mabonga, Paul Simiyu 
School of Computing and Engineering Sciences  
Strathmore University 
 

 

 

Recommended Citation 

Mabonga, P. S. (2025). Decarbonization of urban road infrastructure using solar street lighting in Kenya: 

Assessing implementation and impact [Strathmore University]. http://hdl.handle.net/11071/15971 

 
 
 

Follow this and additional works at: http://hdl.handle.net/11071/15971 

https://su-plus.strathmore.edu/
https://su-plus.strathmore.edu/
http://hdl.handle.net/11071/2474
mailto:library@strathmore.edu
http://hdl.handle.net/11071/15971
http://hdl.handle.net/11071/15971


i 

 

Decarbonization of Urban Road Infrastructure Using Solar Street Lighting 

in Kenya: Assessing Implementation and Impact 

 

 

 

 

Paul Simiyu Mabonga 

152990 

 

 

 

A Dissertation Submitted to the School of Computing and Engineering Sciences 

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Master of Science in 

Sustainable Energy Transitions of Strathmore University 

 

 

School of Computing and Engineering Sciences 

Strathmore University 

Nairobi, Kenya 

 

 

 

 

June 2025 

 

  



ii 

Declaration 

 I, the undersigned, declare that this dissertation is my original work and has not been 

presented to any other institution or examination body. 

 

 

Name: Paul Simiyu Mabonga 

Admission No: 152990 

Signed………………………………………… 

Date……………………………………………. 

 

 

 

Declaration by the Supervisor 

This dissertation has been submitted with my permission as the University Supervisor. 

Name: Dr. Eng S Roy Orenge 

Signed……………………………………. 

Date………………………………………. 

 

  

25/03/2025



iii 

Dedication 

 I dedicate this dissertation to my family, whose unwavering support and encouragement 

are my driving force. Your belief in my abilities has fueled my passion for this endeavor. This 

work is a testament to the love and inspiration you have provided throughout my academic 

journey. 

 

 

  



iv 

Acknowledgments 

 I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor for his unwavering support and 

invaluable guidance throughout the development of this research project. His expertise, 

constructive feedback, and encouragement have been instrumental in shaping the direction of 

this study. Fortunately, I have a supervisor dedicated to fostering academic growth and 

excellence. I want to thank my family and friends for their unwavering encouragement and 

understanding during this research endeavor. Their support has been a source of strength, and 

I am truly fortunate to have such a dedicated support system. Thank you all for being an integral 

part of this journey towards sustainable and innovative solutions in solar street lighting. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



v 

Abstract 

 Decarbonizing urban road infrastructure using solar street lighting is a very promising 

perspective for the sustainable development of Kenya. This dissertation deals with a 

comprehensive study investigating the implementation and impacts of solar-powered lighting 

system adoption in urban areas, taking Mombasa City’s southern bypass highway as a case 

study. The fact that warrants the transition is that the benefits are manifold, such as reduced 

greenhouse gas emissions, increased energy efficiency, better public safety, and economic 

savings in running and maintaining lighting systems. However, the potential of solar street 

lighting has several limitations and assumptions that require empirical research to evaluate its 

feasibility and effectiveness. The dissertation design is based on a comprehensive literature 

review to consolidate the current knowledge on solar street lighting, followed by a detailed 

methodology based on data collection, model development, and data analysis. The Mombasa 

Southern Bypass case study has helped us understand the local context, considering regulatory 

frameworks, technological requirements, and socioeconomic factors. The research, by running 

a qualitative and quantitative investigation about the main technical, economic, and regulatory 

issues arising from the implementation of solar street lighting, aimed to estimate the impacts 

that the sustainable infrastructure solution has on urban planning, energy consumption, and 

environmental quality to orient the definition of the potential advantages and disadvantages for 

policymakers, urban planners, and other stakeholders in implementing such solutions. The way 

forward is to gather findings from the outcomes of this research, which aided in developing 

evidence-based mechanisms to achieve decarbonization and sustainable urban development in 

Kenya and beyond. The study found that while street lighting infrastructure in Mombasa City 

is functional, significant improvements are needed, with a predominant reliance on 

conventional lighting technologies like incandescent and fluorescent lamps. In addition, the 

study found that solar street lighting is viable in Mombasa, and the irradiation level is sufficient 

to maintain reliable operation. The study identified several barriers to adopting solar street 

lighting in Kenya, including high initial costs, insufficient technical expertise, inadequate 

infrastructure, limited local solar technology availability, and logistical challenges. It also 

highlights the lack of government incentives, public resistance, and financing issues as 

significant obstacles to widespread adoption. Further, the study revealed that adopting solar 

street lighting in urban areas, including Mombasa City, is expected to reduce energy 

consumption and carbon emissions.  The study recommends transitioning to solar-powered 

lighting technologies in Mombasa City and the rest of the country to reduce energy 

consumption and emissions. It suggests integrating sustainable lighting into urban planning, 

investing in local solar technology adoption, and developing financing mechanisms to 

overcome financial barriers. Additionally, it emphasizes strengthening local capacity through 

training, streamlining approval processes, and increasing awareness campaigns to address 

public resistance and ensure the successful implementation of solar street lighting projects.  

 

 

 

  



vi 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

Declaration .......................................................................................................................... ii 

Dedication ........................................................................................................................... iii 

Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................. iv 

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... v 

List of Figures..................................................................................................................... ix 

List of Tables ....................................................................................................................... x 

Abbreviations/Acronyms ................................................................................................... xi 

Definition of Terms ........................................................................................................... xii 

Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 5 

1.3 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................... 6 

1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 7 

1.5 Justification ............................................................................................................................ 7 

1.6 Scope ...................................................................................................................................... 8 

1.7 Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 10 

Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................... 12 

2.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 12 

2.1 Statistics on Carbonization in Kenyan Urban Roads Infrastructure ................................. 12 

2.2 Current Street Lighting Solutions across the Globe ........................................................... 13 

2.3 Jurisdiction and Administrative Responsibilities for Street Lighting Solutions ................ 15 

2.4 Impact of Conventional Street Lighting Solutions to the Urban Planning and 

Infrastructure ............................................................................................................................ 16 

2.5 Local and International Regulatory Framework Towards Decarbonization .................... 17 

2.5.1 International Regulatory Frameworks ............................................................................................ 18 

2.5.2 Local Regulatory Environments ...................................................................................................... 18 

2.6 Technical and Technological Gaps in Solar Street Lighting Systems Solutions ................ 19 

2.7 Street Lighting Engineering Standards ............................................................................... 21 

Key Features of Street Lighting Standards ............................................................................................... 22 

2.8 Cost Benefit Analysis of Solar Street Lighting .................................................................... 22 

2.10 Social, Economic, and Environmental Benefits of Solar Street Lighting ......................... 24 



vii 

2.11 Concept Mapping on Decarbonization of Urban Road Infrastructure ............................ 25 

2.12 Research Gaps in Literature.............................................................................................. 27 

2.13 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 29 

Chapter 3: Research Methodology ................................................................................... 31 

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 31 

3.2 Research Design ................................................................................................................... 31 

3.3 Case Study Description ........................................................................................................ 32 

3.4 Data Collection ..................................................................................................................... 34 

3.5 Data collection methods ....................................................................................................... 34 

3.6 Model Development ............................................................................................................. 36 

3.7 Data analysis methods ......................................................................................................... 37 

3.8 Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................................... 38 

3.9 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 38 

Chapter Four: Results....................................................................................................... 39 

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 39 

4.2 Response Rate ...................................................................................................................... 39 

4.3 Status of Street Lighting Infrastructure and Urban GHG Emissions ................................ 39 

4.3.1 Assessment of the Current status and types of Street Lighting Infrastructure ................................... 40 

4.3.2 Types of Street Lighting fixtures in use. ......................................................................................... 40 

4.3.3 Contribution of Street Lighting to Urban GHG Emissions ................................................................ 43 

4.3.4 Installed, Effective, and Captive Power Capacity ........................................................................... 44 

4.3.5 Energy Consumption by Region .................................................................................................... 46 

4.3.6 Green House Gas Emissions .......................................................................................................... 46 

4.3.7 Thermal electricity supply Data ..................................................................................................... 47 

4.4 Feasibility and Potential Benefits of Solar Street Lighting ................................................. 52 

4.4.1 Solar Energy Potential ................................................................................................................... 52 

4.4.2 Quality of the Lighting .................................................................................................................. 53 

4.4.3 Viability of the Investment ............................................................................................................ 77 

4.4.4 Economic Benefits of Adopting Solar Street Lighting .................................................................... 81 

4.4.5 Environmental Benefits of Adopting Solar Street Lighting ............................................................. 81 

4.4.6 Social Benefits of Adopting Solar Street Lighting .......................................................................... 81 

4.5 Challenges and Barriers to Adopting Solar Street Lighting ............................................... 82 

4.5.1 Primary Barriers to Adopting Solar Street Lighting ........................................................................ 82 

4.6 Impacts of Solar Street Lighting on Urban Energy Consumption and GHG Emissions 

Reduction ................................................................................................................................... 83 



viii 

4.6.2 Estimated GHG Emissions Reduction from Solar Street Lighting ............................................... 83 

4.6.3 Overall Impact of Solar Street Lighting on Energy Consumption .................................................... 84 

Chapter Five: Discussions ................................................................................................. 86 

5.1 Status of Street Lighting Infrastructure and Urban GHG Emissions ................................ 86 

5.2 Feasibility and Potential Benefits of Solar Street Lighting ................................................. 87 

5.3 Challenges and Barriers to Adopting Solar Street Lighting ............................................... 90 

5.4 Impacts of Solar Street Lighting on Urban Energy Consumption and GHG Emissions 

Reduction ................................................................................................................................... 91 

Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendation .............................................................. 93 

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 93 

6.2 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 93 

6.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................ 95 

6.4 Further Work....................................................................................................................... 96 

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 97 

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 102 

Appendix A: Similarity Report ............................................................................................... 102 

Appendix B: Ethical Clearance Release Letter....................................................................... 105 

Appendix C: Questionnaire ..................................................................................................... 106 

 

  



ix 

List of Figures 

Figure 2.1: Energy Consumption based on KPLC region categorization for the year ending June 2024

........................................................................................................................................................ 13 

Figure 4. 2: A Trend in CO2 Emissions from Electricity Generation ................................................ 47 

Figure 4. 3: Monthly Thermal Energy Generation during the Financial Year 2023/2024................... 47 

Figure 4. 5: Solar Energy Potential .................................................................................................. 53 

Figure 4. 6: Solar Lighting vs Conventional Lighting ....................................................................... 78 

Figure 4. 7: Annual comparison between Conventional and Solar Lighting ownership costs ............. 78 

 

  



x 

List of Tables 

 

Table 1. 1: Transport Sector prioritized actions and level of implementation as of June 2022 (based on 

sectoral expert consultations) ............................................................................................................. 2 

Table 3. 1: Distribution of the Respondents ..................................................................... 33 

Table 4. 1: Regional Sale of Electricity for Street Lighting in GWh (KPLC Economic Analysis 

Report) ................................................................................................................................ 41 

Table 4. 2: KENHA Construction and Maintenance of Road Lighting ................................. 42 

Table 4. 3: Electricity Generation in Kenya ......................................................................... 44 

Table 4. 4: Installed, effective, and captive power capacity as of 30th June 2024 ................. 45 

Table 4. 5: Thermal Data ..................................................................................................... 49 

Table 4. 6: Selected Roads and Areas for Electricity Consumption Analysis ....................... 50 

Table 4. 7: Photometric Calculation for Mombasa Southern bypass (Port Ritz Miritini). ..... 55 

Table 4. 9: 20-year comparison of lighting solution costs .................................................... 80 

Table 4. 10: Primary Barriers to Adopting Solar Street Lighting .......................................... 83 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



xi 

Abbreviations/Acronyms 

CDM- Clean Development Mechanism 

CO₂ – Carbon Dioxide 

EF – Emission Factor 

EPRA: Energy & Petroleum Regulation Authority 

GHG – Greenhouse Gas 

GIS – Geographic Information System 

IEA – International Energy Agency 

IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 

KENHA- Kenya National Highways Authority 

KPLC- Kenya Power and Lighting Company 

LCPDP-Least Cost Power Development Plan. 

LED- Light Emitting Diode 

NACOSTI-National Commission for Science, Technology & Innovation 

NDCs- Nationally Determined Contributions 

PPPs- Public-Private Partnerships 

PV- Photovoltaic 

R&D- Research and Development 

REREC-Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Corporation 

ROI – Return on Investment 

SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals 

SSL- Street Lighting Solutions 

UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

 

 

  



xii 

Definition of Terms 

Carbon Emissions – Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other GHGs are released into the atmosphere 

due to human activities, including burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, and urban 

infrastructure management (Wimbadi & Djalante, 2020). 

Conventional street lighting solutions refer to traditional methods and technologies for 

illuminating public spaces, roadways, and urban areas, where the lighting source is mainly 

the national grid (Burgess2022). 

Decarbonization – The elimination or reduction of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from 

various sectors like transport, energy, and infrastructure to prevent climate change and 

promote sustainability (Bernstein & Hoffmann, 2015). 

Energy Efficiency – The practice of reducing energy usage while delivering the same quality 

of service or manufacturing, usually accomplished by introducing innovative technologies 

like LED lights and intelligent control systems (BalaMurugan & Karuppiah, 2021). 

Environmental benefits: This refers to the positive impacts and contributions of solar-

powered lighting systems to the natural environment (Arent et al., 2022). 

Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions – The release of gases such as CO₂, methane (CH₄), and 

nitrous oxide (N₂O) that are trapped in the atmosphere and cause global warming (Amuyunzu 

& Kisimbii, 2021). 

Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Lighting – An energy-efficient lighting technology that uses 

less energy and has a longer lifespan than traditional incandescent or fluorescent lamps 

(Welfle et al., 2020). 

Lux: This refers to the quantity of light per square area (Wambui et al., 2022). 

Lumens refers to the total quantity of light emitted from a light source (Terblanche, 2019). 

Photovoltaic (PV) System – An array system that uses solar panels to produce electricity, 

most commonly used in solar streetlights (Sutopo et al., 2020). 

Public-Private Partnership (PPP) – An arrangement partnership between public 

government and private institutions to invest in, construct, and operate infrastructure schemes 

like solar streetlights (Pulselli et al., 2021). 

Return on Investment (ROI) measures an investment's profitability, defined as the ratio of 

net savings or returns to the implementation cost (Bernstein & Hoffmann, 2015). 

Solar street lighting: This sustainable and energy-efficient solution harnesses solar energy to 

power outdoor lighting systems, particularly street lights (Ciriminna & Pagliaro, 2017). 



xiii 

Solar Street Lighting (SSL) – A green light source that utilizes solar power to power LED 

streetlights, reducing the consumption of grid electricity and GHG emissions (Odak & Aila, 

2023). 

Social benefits refer to positive outcomes or advantages that directly or indirectly impact 

individuals, communities, or society (Stewart & Mele, 2018). 

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – A set of global goals accepted by the United 

Nations (UN) for the use of sustainability, including affordable and clean energy (SDG 7) 

and climate action (SDG 13) (Stewart & Mele, 2018). 

Traditional Street Lighting – Conventional street lighting systems based on grid electricity, 

derived from fossil fuels, leading to high energy use and GHG emissions (Wimbadi & 

Djalante, 2020). 

Urban Road Infrastructure – The highway network, highways, and related public 

infrastructure of a city that requires efficient lighting for security, safety, and energy 

efficiency (Burgess2022).



1 

 

Chapter 1: Introduction 

 

1.1 Background of the Study 

 Kenya has a high rate of urbanization, and its urban areas are growing at unprecedented 

levels. Energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are increasing with this 

urban growth rate, attributed to the transport and urban infrastructure sectors. Deutsche 

Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) supports several initiatives by assessing 

and reducing GHG emissions in developing countries, including the "Advancing Transport 

Climate Strategies in Rapidly Motorizing Countries" (TrACS). In Kenya, GIZ partnered with 

the University of Nairobi to get firm road transport CO2 emission factors, emphasizing that 

time is overdue to address emissions from all the urban infrastructures, including street lighting. 

Street lighting is part of urban infrastructure, ensuring urban dwellers' safety, security, and 

quality of life (Luusa, 2019). Most streetlights in Kenya are associated with high energy 

consumption and emissions since they run on electricity generated from fossil fuels from the 

grid by at least 17%. As Kenya continues to urbanize, the demand for street lighting will 

increase further, worsening the challenge of managing energy consumption and reducing 

emissions (Welfle et al., 2020). Kenya has one of the highest potentials for solar energy in the 

world, which provides the country with a vast opportunity to decarbonize urban road 

infrastructure using solar street lighting systems. 

 The "Transport Sector Climate Change Annual Report 2021/2022" highlights the 

progress and challenges in reducing greenhouse gases in Kenya's transport sector. Emissions 

from the road subsector dominate the total emission from Kenya's transport sector compared 

to the railway, aviation, and maritime subsectors, which stand at 98% and 2%, respectively. A 

report to fulfill the mandate of the Climate Change Act 2016 details the priority actions, the 

status of their implementation in mitigation, and activities to reduce emissions to 3.5 MtCO2e 

by 2030. It documents steps taken in public transport optimization, construction of non-

motorized transport, development of resilient infrastructures, and other capacity-building 

activities. However, the report identifies the need for sustained capacity building, regulatory 

strengthening, and enhanced financial and technical support to ensure more investments for 

increased emission reduction targets for the future.  

 

 



2 

Table 1. 1: Transport Sector prioritized actions and level of implementation as of June 

2022 (based on sectoral expert consultations) 

 Priority Actions Objectives Implementation Level (as 

of June 2022) 

1 To develop a BRT for the 

Nairobi Metropolitan area 

and optimize public 

transport. 

To reduce congestion and 

provide improved mobility 

services. 

Line 2 is under 

construction. The process 

is being led by NAMATA 

line 3 & 5 design works 

complete. 

2 Shift freight from/to 

Mombasa and Nairobi from 

road to rail. 

To reduce congestion on the 

road and shorten the time limit 

for cargo transportation. 

Continuous marketing and 

connecting to rail sidings 

consolidation of cargo at 

Nairobi Boma line, transit 

shed. 

3 NMT construction across 

different urban areas  

To enhance mobility for short 

trips 

Ongoing developments: 

KURA is incorporating 

NMT in all upcoming 

roads and other strategic 

existing roads. 

4 Climate-proofing transport 

infrastructure. 

To increase the resilience of 

transport infrastructure against 

flooding and extreme 

temperature differences. 

Continuous resilient 

infrastructure development 

by KERRA, KUNHA, 

KAA, KURA, KR. 

5 Finalization of CORSIA 

regulations for the aviation 

sector. 

To enhance compliance with 

international aviation with 

ICAO carbon offsetting 

standards. 

Regulations awaiting 

ministerial approval 

6 Finalizations of regulations 

on the prevention of air 

pollution from shipping 

To give the complete effect of 

the international convention on 

the prevention of pollution from 

ships (Marpol 73) 

Draft regulations being 

finalized by KMA 

 



3 

 Solar street lighting is a sustainable and environmentally friendly approach to 

conventional street lighting. It reduces grid dependence, which is one way of reducing the use 

of fossil fuels and electricity charges. Solar streetlights are made of photovoltaic panels, 

batteries, and LED lamps (Wambui et al., 2022). During the day, the photovoltaic panels absorb 

solar energy and store it in batteries; the LED lamps light up at night. Technology reduces 

carbon footprints and contributes to energy security because it offers a point source of 

generation from a clean source with no fossil-based process. Electricity is generated from the 

solar module, stored in a battery, consumed at the same point, and loaded by the connected 

light. Despite the tremendous benefits likely to emanate from solar street lighting, the 

technology has not seen much use in Kenyan urban areas (Akomolafe, 2023). The reasons are 

the high capital costs, lack of awareness, and technical challenges concerning installing and 

maintaining solar street lighting systems. In addition, there is also a lack of proper and adequate 

studies that have been conducted to determine the feasibility, implementation challenges, and 

overall impact of solar street lighting on GHG emissions reduction in an urban area (Welfle et 

al., 2020). This research gap has been a significant disadvantage to policymakers and 

stakeholders in deciding which avenue to adopt to ensure solar street lighting is widely and 

rampantly used in urban areas as a decarbonization strategy. 

 The rise of climate change concerns and the urgency for sustainable energy have 

necessitated innovations and investments in alternative energy sources. Like other countries 

worldwide, Kenya has recently scaled up investments in renewable energies (Osano & Kingiri, 

2021). Kenya's Vision 2030 long‐term development vision underscored the importance of 

renewable energy in attaining sustainable development and reducing greenhouse gas 

emissions. Solar energy is one of the key resources tapped to meet the country's energy needs 

sustainably. Based on Wambui et al. (2022), Kenya has demonstrated its concern for renewable 

energy resources by setting ambitious targets for the rise in the proportion of renewable 

resources in the national energy balance. In a bid to attract investors into the renewable energy 

sub‐sectors, the government has put in place many policies, including exemption of import 

duties for energy‐related materials and equipment, reduction of customs duties on renewable 

energy equipment and materials and related accessories from 25% to 10%, VAT exemption for 

zero rating for renewable equipment, concessional corporate taxes, and VAT rate reduction 

from 20 to 0% on renewable energy equipment (Luusa, 2019). Tax holidays have been given 

to investors, and tariffs have been fed in for solar investors who sell power to the national grid. 

Following these initiatives, the level of solar systems use in Kenya has increased significantly. 



4 

However, most initiatives have focused on using solar power for residential and commercial 

use, with a minimal focus on solar street lighting. 

 The implementation of solar street lighting in urban areas will serve to make a 

significant contribution to Kenya's decarbonization. Such a move will reduce energy use and 

the emission of GHGs in cities by using solar streetlights. Social and economic benefits that 

come with solar street lighting include better public security, low energy costs, and an 

improved outlook for urbanization (Luusa, 2019). This is especially helpful in rural and peri-

urban places that have little or no grid electricity access. It is helpful in these areas to provide 

a constant lighting source and support local economic activities. To successfully implement 

street lighting with solar power in urban centers, it is necessary to comprehensively analyze the 

existing situation with street lighting, the state of solar street lighting applications, and the 

difficulties and obstacles in its wide-scale adoption. It is also necessary to analyze the impact 

of solar street lighting on reducing energy use and GHGs in a specified area (Amuyunzu & 

Kisimbii, 2021). This paper focuses on these critical issues and conducts a detailed study of 

the implementation and impact of solar street lighting in Kenya's urban areas. 

 Based on Welfle et al. (2020), implementing solar street lighting in urban areas will 

significantly contribute to Kenya's decarbonization. Such a move will reduce energy use and 

the emission of GHGs in cities by using solar streetlights. Social and economic benefits that 

come with solar street lighting include better public security, low energy costs, and an 

improved outlook for urbanization. This is especially helpful in rural and peri-urban places that 

have little or no grid electricity access. It is helpful in these areas to provide a constant lighting 

source and support local economic activities (Akomolafe, 2023). To successfully implement 

street lighting with solar power in urban centers, it is necessary to comprehensively analyze the 

existing situation with street lighting, the state of solar street lighting applications, and the 

difficulties and obstacles in its wide-scale adoption. It is also necessary to analyze the impact 

of solar street lighting on reducing energy use and GHGs in a specified area (Wambui et al., 

2022). This research focuses on these critical issues and studies the implementation and impact 

of solar street lighting in Kenya's urban areas.  

Urbanization and its associated challenges have increased pressure on energy systems 

and the environment. This has resulted in an enormous increase in energy demand and GHG 

emissions, primarily in the transport and urban infrastructure sectors, as a result of this fast rate 

of urbanization. Street lighting is a key component of any urban infrastructure that contributes 

to this problem. Using fossil fuel-based grid electricity by at least 15% in traditionally designed 



5 

street lighting systems is a massive source of energy consumption and GHG emissions for any 

urban area. The demand for street lighting in Kenya will only increase in the coming years with 

the increase in urban population, further intensifying the energy consumption and emission 

reduction challenge (Luusa, 2019). Although solar street lighting is urgently required to occur 

in the urban settings of Kenya, such adoption remains low. Solar street lighting has great 

potential to emerge as a popular alternative to conventional street lighting, as it harnesses 

renewable solar energy and cuts down on fossil fuel dependency and the cost of electricity. 

These systems can operate independently of the grid, making them particularly advantageous 

in areas with limited or unreliable access to grid electricity. However, several barriers impede 

the widespread implementation of solar street lighting, including high initial capital costs, lack 

of awareness and technical expertise, and challenges related to installation and maintenance. 

1.2 Problem Statement 

 The Transport Sector Climate Change Annual Report 2021/2022 reveals significant 

challenges in the Kenyan transport sector, with high greenhouse gases and the need for resilient 

infrastructure solutions. Even after establishing a target to reduce emissions by 3.5 MtCO2e by 

2030, the transport sector remains largely dependent on fossil fuel, while road transport alone 

accounts for approximately 98% of the sectoral emissions. This development involves the 

environmental costs of the existing conventional street lighting. The proposed interventions 

have become attractive with the urgent need for innovative approaches, such as solar street 

lighting, to decarbonize urban road infrastructures and support the transition to a safe and 

friendly low-carbon economy that improves urban mobility and resiliency. On the other hand, 

the limited adoption of solar street lighting in Kenya suggests an inadequacy of generalized 

findings assessing the feasibility, implementation challenges, and overall impact on reducing 

GHG emissions (Welfle et al., 2020). Correctly understanding these factors is important for 

decision-makers and stakeholders to decide on the momentum for the shift toward sustainable 

street lighting solutions.  

 In addition, there is the need to assess the social and economic benefits derived from 

solar street lighting, among them enhanced public safety, lowered energy costs, and improved 

aesthetics of the urban areas, which further support its adoption. Policies within the urban 

infrastructure sector that seek to harness the country's renewable energy potential seriously 

need sustainable energy solutions (Wambui et al., 2022). There is an urgent need in Kenya to 

understand and implement sustainable energy solutions for urban infrastructure, including road 

infrastructure, in line with the commitment to Vision 2030 for the reduction of GHG emissions. 



6 

In contrast, solar street lighting provides an important opportunity for the decarbonization of 

road infrastructures in urban areas and, therefore, should be exploited to realize an overall 

decrease in GHG emissions in the country. However, the lack of comprehensive data and 

analysis on the implementation and impact of solar street lighting hinders the development of 

effective strategies and interventions to promote its widespread adoption. 

 This project, therefore, addressed the following key gaps: a detailed study on the 

implementation and the impact of solar street lighting in Kenya's urban areas. The research will 

see a further evaluation of the existing street lighting infrastructure, an analysis of the technical, 

economic, and environmental benefits of solar street lighting, and the constraints and barriers 

to its massive adoption (Wambui et al., 2022). In this regard, the study in question will provide 

a comprehensive framework for understanding the feasibility and impact of solar street 

lighting, which informs the policymakers and stakeholders on the strategies and interventions 

necessary to realize sustainable urban development and the climate targets of Kenya (Osano & 

Kingiri, 2021). The high consumption of traditional energy and GHG emissions from the 

lighting systems and the fossil-powered vehicular traffic of the country's urban roads create the 

need to explore sustainable street lighting alternatives, such as solar street lighting as an 

alternative carbon sink. So, the outlined gaps need to be addressed to drive the change to 

sustainable urban infrastructure. This project sought to fill these gaps and provide valuable 

insights into the potential of solar street lighting as a key component in decarbonizing urban 

road infrastructure in Kenya. 

 

1.3 Research Objectives 

General Objective 

 This research aimed to assess the status of street lighting and the impact of solar street 

lighting on decarbonizing urban road infrastructure using the Mombasa Southern Bypass as a 

case study. 

 

 

Specific Objectives 

1. To assess the status of street lighting infrastructure and its implication for urban GHG 

emissions in Kenya. 

2. Analyze the feasibility and potential benefits of solar street lighting in urban areas. 

3. Identify the challenges and barriers to adopting solar street lighting in Kenya. 



7 

4. Estimate the impacts of solar street lighting on urban energy consumption and GHG 

emissions reduction in Kenya.  

1.4 Research Questions 

1. What is the status of street lighting infrastructure and its implication for urban GHG 

emissions in Kenya? 

2. What are the technical, economic, and environmental benefits of implementing solar 

street lighting in urban areas? 

3. What challenges and barriers are experienced in adopting solar street lighting in Kenya? 

4. How does solar street lighting affect urban energy use and the associated GHG 

emissions? 

1.5 Justification 

 Since the early 2000s, Kenya has recorded rapid urbanization and motorization, leading 

to a surge in energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transport and 

urban infrastructure sectors. For example, as shown by the 2018 GIZ TraCS pilot study, 

Kenya's road transport sector has very significant CO2 emission factors: 185.20 g CO2/km for 

passenger cars, 216.48 g CO2/km for LCVs, and 759.88 g CO2/km for HGVs. Combined, this 

gives a very significant carbon footprint, which means that climate change is a real threat, and 

there is a need for action, urgently and innovatively, to contain the situation (Luusa, 2019). The 

most promising approach that has the potential to mitigate these emissions is the 

decarbonization of urban road infrastructure through the adoption of solar street lighting. By 

using renewable solar energy, solar street lighting reduces the use of fossil fuels and 

simultaneously reduces the carbon emissions from grid-powered street lighting to a 

considerable extent. It will thus sit very well with Kenya's mandate for sustainable development 

and climate action, as spelled out in Kenya's National Climate Change Action Plan and its 

Vision 2030. 

 The application of solar street lighting has several convincing advantages other than the 

sustainability aspect of the environment. First, it can drastically reduce operational expenditure 

on street lighting. Standard street lighting requirements usually involve high consumption of 

electricity and, therefore, incur high energy costs for urban local bodies (Wambui et al., 2022). 

The switch to solar streetlights could save many urban areas money on energy bills, which 

could be diverted to other important urban infrastructure projects. Second, public safety and 

security will be enhanced with solar street lighting. Illumination of streets is crucial in reducing 

criminal rates and road incidents, creating better urban environments for residents (Welfle et 



8 

al., 2020). Solar streetlights, with their capability to operate off-grid, are reliable and entail 

continuous lighting even during power outages, providing consistent and continuous safety. 

Third, this promotes energy independence and resiliency. Reliance on local and renewable 

energy resources reduces the dependency of urban areas on the national grid, which is often 

unreliable and inefficient (Akomolafe, 2023). This resiliency is, therefore, a great asset 

considering the increasing energy demand in Kenya and the urge for reliable infrastructure to 

support economic development. 

 Further, adopting solar street lighting will align with Kenya's socio-economic 

development agenda. Solar lighting system installation and maintenance can also create many 

job opportunities and stimulate economies at the local level. It also makes Kenya an important 

front-runner in adopting renewable energy, thus sending a signal to other developing countries 

(Welfle et al., 2020). Of course, these significant advantages come with careful planning and 

consideration of some factors, such as initial investment costs, technological constraints, and 

maintenance challenges. However, in the long run, the benefits are higher on the economic and 

environmental fronts, thus making it an extreme case for adopting solar street lighting in urban 

areas in Kenya (Luusa, 2019). Decarbonizing urban road infrastructure through solar street 

lighting is a key step toward achieving sustainable urban development in Kenya. It helps 

achieve immediate GHG emissions reductions, improve public safety and energy cost savings, 

and promote renewable energy consumption (Baburajan, 2021). This paper aims to evaluate 

the implementation and effect of solar street lighting to gain crucial insights and provide 

recommendations in line with Kenya's climate and development objectives. 

 

1.6 Scope 

 This project focused on the proposed decarbonization of urban road infrastructure in 

Kenya using solar street lighting systems in a case study of the Mombasa southern bypass. The 

study involved many components to make it quite comprehensive regarding the feasibility, 

implementation, and implications of solar street lighting in urban cities. 

 

Coverage 

 The study included only a segment of the Mombasa Southern Bypass highway, a 38km 

road connecting the port of Mombasa with the rest of the city. The objective is to use this case 

study for the rest of the country's roads. The road is currently installed with 2008 grid-powered 

lights rated at 150w at an efficiency of 120lumens/watt emitting 22lux light level of lighting 



9 

for a total electricity consumption of 3,615 Kwhr daily for a Kshs 13,041,000 annual billing to 

Kenya National Highways authority. 

Key Aspects 

 Technological viability: This will consider the technical requirements for implementing 

solar street lighting, including specifications for solar panels, battery storage, lighting 

technology, and the infrastructure required for their installation (Wambui et al., 2022). 

It will also investigate the available solar radiation data towards optimum harnessed 

energy. 

 Economic Analysis: This is tantamount to a cost-benefit analysis of the initial 

investment, costs of operation, and maintenance compared with conventional grid-

powered street lighting. This will further probe potential savings by bringing out 

quantifiable energy cost results and the large-scale implementation's economic 

viability. 

 Environmental and Greenhouse Impact Analysis: The assessment includes establishing 

the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transition to solar street 

lighting. This will be measured against the current emission data collected from 

conventional street lighting. 

 Social Impact Assessment: A broader social assessment, including public safety 

enhancement and increased security, job creation, and community acceptability of solar 

street lighting technology (Luusa, 2019). 

 Implementation Challenges: This section identifies and describes potential 

implementation barriers, ranging from financial to technical and maintenance 

problems, and further develops strategies for overcoming these barriers. 

Time Frame 

 The research was conducted for 8 months to facilitate proper data collection, analysis, 

and evaluation. This period encompassed the installation of solar streetlights, pilot projects, 

and monitoring and evaluation phases. 

 

Stakeholder Involvement 

 The study drew the participation of a wide range of stakeholders, including local 

governments, energy providers, community organizations, and international development 

partners, to ensure that the assessment and implementation of solar street lighting systems is 

comprehensive and inclusive. In this regard, this scope outlines the critical areas of focus for 



10 

the project in terms of assuring a detailed and holistic assessment of the potential for 

decarbonizing urban road infrastructure in Kenya through solar street lighting (Maina et al., 

2022). 

 

1.7 Limitations 

 While this project sought to conduct an overall decarbonization assessment of urban 

road infrastructure in Kenya through solar street lighting, the following limitations are 

identified and need to be stated for a realistic understanding of the study's constraints. 

 

1. Technological Restrictions 

The performance and efficiency of solar street lighting systems are susceptible to the 

availability of sunlight. Variations in the intensity of solar radiation for various reasons, such 

as variability in weather and seasonal changes, and shading effects from tall buildings 

associated with urban developments, may affect the reliability of these systems (Wambui et al., 

2022). Moreover, with technologies associated with solar panels and battery storage evolving 

increasingly fast, systems put in place will be outdated in a short period. 

2. Infrastructure Challenges 

 Urban areas, especially the cities that are densely populated, such as Nairobi and 

Mombasa, have numerous infrastructural challenges. Coupling solar street lighting with the 

existing urban road infrastructures can be particularly challenging and might require complex 

modifications (Akomolafe, 2023). Additionally, the question of the durability of solar 

equipment in urban conditions—where vandalism and accidental damage are possible—

remains. 

3. Data Availability and Accuracy 

 The accuracy of the current street lighting energy consumption, greenhouse gas 

emissions, and infrastructure is critical to this study. However, data inconsistency and missing 

data may affect the accuracy of the analysis. Adequate solar radiation data regarding 

consistency and accuracy for the chosen urban areas is also important for a reliable feasibility 

study. 

4. Socio-Cultural Acceptance 

 The success of implementing solar street lighting also depends on how much the 

community accepts and supports it. The willingness to change from conventional street lighting 



11 

systems to solar systems can be limited by a lack of knowledge and misconceptions regarding 

whether solar systems can be reliable and the benefits of this technology (Welfle et al., 2020).  

 

 

 

 

  



12 

Chapter 2: Literature Review 

2.0 Introduction 

 This chapter presents a literature review on decarbonizing urban road infrastructure for 

economic and social benefits and using solar street lighting in low-carbon cities. The literature 

review was done according to the study's objectives. 

2.1 Statistics on Carbonization in Kenyan Urban Roads Infrastructure 

 It is no exception for Kenya, among the world's significant sources of GHG emissions. 

The urban road infrastructure, particularly those of fast-growing cities like Nairobi and 

Mombasa, has been the big carbon emitters (Rauland & Newman, 2019). The urgency of 

dealing with the carbon emissions issue in the transport sector on Kenya's roads is well caught 

under the GIZ pilot study in 2015. By volume, the transport sector in Kenya accounts for close 

to 12% of the total national GHG emissions, most of which come from the urban road 

infrastructure (Luusa, 2019). The GIZ study in 2015 showed that the average CO2 emission 

factors in various vehicle categories operating in the Kenyan urban areas were: passenger cars, 

185.20 g CO2/km; light commercial vehicles, 216.48 g CO2/km; heavy goods, 759.88 g 

CO2/km; and coaches, 846.26 g CO2/km; and motorcycles emit 68.46 g CO2/km.  

 All these statistics point to the fact that urban road transport in Kenya results in high 

carbon emissions. The growth in urbanization and rising numbers of motor vehicles make it 

worse. Nairobi, for instance, has witnessed a massive increase in vehicle registration, with over 

300,000 new vehicles registered per annum in recent years. With such a high increase, traffic 

jams increase with a propensity for long idling, further increasing GHG emissions (Wambui et 

al., 2022). Further research revealed that the country's fuel economy for vehicles is significantly 

lower than the rest of the world, attributed to importing older, inefficient vehicles. More than 

90% of vehicles used in Kenya as passenger cars are second-hand imports, mainly from Japan, 

and the average delay in improving fuel efficiency between second-hand imports and new 

vehicles is eight years (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 2021). This results in higher emissions per 

kilometer. 

 Based on Akomolafe (2023), conventional street lighting is similarly an energy-

intensive process in urban areas, and this also has a share in the carbonization scenario. 

Powered mainly by the national grid, traditional street lighting systems substantially depend 

on fossil fuels. Many streetlights are found in major urban cities, and their collective energy 

consumption translates to high carbon emissions. The carbonization of urban road 

infrastructure in Kenya will only be mitigated by multifaceted interventions focused on 



13 

improving vehicle fuel efficiency, traffic management, and integrating renewable energy 

solutions such as solar street lighting. The deployment of solar street lighting within urban 

centers would drastically reduce the use of fossil fuels, leading to GHG emissions that are not 

sustainable. 

 

Figure 2.1: Energy Consumption based on KPLC region categorization for the year 

ending June 2024 

 As per EPRA statistics, the bar chart in Figure 2.1 illustrates energy consumption 

across regions in Kenya (in GWh). Nairobi peaks in energy consumption at 4,571.78 GWh, 

with other regions being way behind. Coast (1,916.98 GWh) and Rift Region (1,431.23 

GWh) also have high consumption. Northeastern (1,115.30 GWh) is next, and South Nyanza 

(201.10 GWh) and West Kenya (556.77 GWh) use the lowest amount of energy. The 

statistics reflect regional disparities in electricity consumption. 

 

2.2 Current Street Lighting Solutions across the Globe 

 The implementation of street lighting solutions worldwide is at very different levels 

due to the development of infrastructure, energy resources, environmental considerations, and 

technological development. A look at existing street lighting solutions worldwide offers us an 

opportunity to understand the feasibility and effectiveness of different approaches. In 

developed nations like the United States, Europe, and Asia, traditional street lighting systems 

use electricity from the grid to a certain extent. HPS and metal halide lamps have primarily 

been used because of the efficiency and dependability of this lighting technology (Luusa, 



14 

2019). That said, changing to LEDs has become a trend due to their significant energy savings, 

prolonged life, and quality of light.  

 On the other hand, with energy poverty and financial challenges, there is an excellent 

problem with adequate street lighting in developing countries, including the Horn of Africa. 

Solar street lighting is the other technology that has been very effective in these regions. Solar 

streetlights are just lighting that trap power from the sun using photovoltaic panels (Maina et 

al., 2022). The captured energy is then stored in batteries to be used at night. The off-grid 

method is low-cost and less dependent on fossil fuels in terms of infrastructure, thus very 

appropriate for rural and remote areas. Indian governments have aggressively ensured the 

large-scale adoption of solar street lighting in the country (Wambui et al., 2022). Under the 

Street Lighting National Programme and other schemes, efforts have been made to ensure that 

these energy-saving systems replace conventional street lighting. Not only does this save a 

considerable amount of energy and reduce the carbon footprint, but it also adds an element of 

safety and visibility to the roads. 

 It could be one way of bettering the infrastructure on the roads of the urban areas and, 

at the same time, reducing the number of challenges in line with sustainability in such regions 

as Kenya, which has a shortage of electricity (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 2021). Besides, the 

country's commitment to climate action, marked by its participation in the Paris Agreement 

and the policy framework on climate change, underscores the need to embrace low-carbon 

technologies. Despite these benefits, solar street lighting still has a challenge with initial costs, 

design, maintenance challenges, and concerns with technology. Therefore, the reliability and 

robustness of solar-powered systems under varying environmental conditions are considered 

the key conditions for their widespread adoption. Furthermore, effective policy frameworks, 

financing mechanisms, and capacity-building efforts are needed to implement and maintain 

solar street lighting projects (Welfle et al., 2020). The literature review was also important in 

understanding the state of street lighting solutions around the world, considering the use of 

solar technology in these areas, and this forms an integral part of the proposed study, which 

seeks to outline how urban road infrastructures could be decarbonized in Kenya using solar 

street lighting. 

 



15 

2.3 Jurisdiction and Administrative Responsibilities for Street Lighting 

Solutions 

 Based on Welfle et al. (2020), knowing where jurisdiction and administrative 

responsibilities fall for street lighting solutions is important for effectively delivering any 

smart-style initiative. These vary quite differently from country to country and, in some cases, 

even from region to region within countries, based on their policy frameworks, especially in 

local contexts. This section introduces how street lighting management and administrative roles 

work in different jurisdictions. In street lighting solutions, many countries usually assign 

responsibility to sub-national entities, such as municipalities or city councils, to plan, install, 

maintain, and upgrade street lighting infrastructure. For example, in most developed countries 

like the United States, municipalities usually collaborate with utility companies to provide 

electricity (Luusa, 2019). At the same time, local public works departments may manage and 

maintain street lights. Since many of these activities are conducted at the local level, the funds 

to finance the projects are usually drawn from local sources such as taxes, utility bills, or an 

investment budget, which is set up separately and allocated towards investment in 

infrastructure.  

 The case is similar in European countries, with municipalities at the center. However, 

the degree of coordination with the national or regional level is usually much higher, mainly 

regarding funding and standards. For instance, in Germany, street lighting is in the domain of 

the local government, but the country follows the energy and environment standards of the 

federal authorities (Akomolafe, 2023). The European Union also dictates policy through 

directives that mandate energy efficiency and sustainability, eventually driving the entire street 

lighting system to be someday composed mainly of LED and solar-powered lighting. In 

contrast, administrative landscapes are more complex in developing countries due to variable 

infrastructure development and governance capability levels. In India, street lighting is the 

responsibility of the central and state agencies and local municipal authorities. Central-level 

programs like the Street Lighting National Programme (SLNP) provide policy direction and 

financial support. Implementation is done by state and local governments across the country 

(Wambui et al., 2022). This multi-tier approach to the responsibility of street lighting actualizes 

a difference in dealing with both urban and rural needs but also causes problems in 

coordination. 

 In Africa, the administrative or governance structure for street lighting takes due 

cognizance of decentralization policies designed to improve local governance. In Kenya, 



16 

county governments are mainly responsible for urban infrastructure, including street lighting. 

However, street lighting projects often involve partnerships with national agencies, private-

sector stakeholders, and international development organizations for their execution. For 

example, the Kenyan Urban Roads Authority (KURA) works with county governments to 

improve road infrastructure involving street lighting (Welfle et al., 2020). Private sector 

participation has also been substantial in many countries. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) 

are being used to attract private sector capabilities and financing for street lighting investments. 

Such PPPs relieve the local government's revenue-constrained budget and ensure more 

efficient project implementation (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 2021). For example, in several 

African countries, private companies have been contracted to install and maintain solar 

streetlights, often with financing support from international donors or climate funds.  

 The effectiveness of street lighting solutions depends heavily on clear lines of 

responsibility in administration and robust coordination mechanisms. The policy frameworks 

should thus pop up, indicating what various stakeholders are supposed to do and involving 

adequate financing besides promoting the cause of sustainability (Wambui et al., 2022). In 

Kenya, capacity development for county governments, collaboration with national and private 

agencies, and compatibility with best practices internationally are some of the avenues that 

guarantee the success of solar street lighting programs. Within this jurisdictional and 

administrative dynamics knowledge, the proposed study in the context of decarbonizing urban 

road infrastructure in Kenya becomes relevant. 

 

2.4 Impact of Conventional Street Lighting Solutions to the Urban Planning 

and Infrastructure 

 Conventional street lighting solutions manifest significant impacts on urban planning 

and infrastructure. These impacts range from energy consumption, environmental 

sustainability, and economic costs to urban aesthetics and functionality (Osano & Kingiri, 

2021). Most importantly, conventional street lighting is in high energy demand. The two 

traditional street lighting systems, high-pressure sodium (HPS) and metal halide lamps, require 

high energy. High energy requirements are very problematic for the urban power grid, adding 

much tension, which will increase operational costs for the municipality (Welfle et al., 2020). 

Sometimes, the energy consumed in street lighting may make up the bulk of electric power 

demand for a city, contributing to high greenhouse gas emissions that the city will bear as 

emissions from power generation. 



17 

  On environmental levels, conventional street lighting leads to light pollution, which 

disturbs the ecosystem and affects the health of humans. Over-illumination from improperly 

directed sources harms many animals, often causing disorientation during their nocturnal 

migrations and breeding behavior. In humans, it can interfere with sleep patterns and diminish 

the quality of life by hiding the night sky. More so, the high energy consumption involved with 

traditional street lighting systems further exacerbates urban areas' carbon footprint, 

contributing to climate change. From an economic point of view, conventional street lighting 

incurs high installation, operation, and maintenance costs (Akomolafe, 2023). Bulb 

replacement and infrastructure maintenance costs related to outdated infrastructure accrue into 

long-term costs for any municipality. Such costs are attributed to municipal budgets that require 

investment in other inevitable and vital urban development projects. From a purely urban 

aesthetic and functionality viewpoint, conventional street lighting can make or mar an urban 

setting.  

 Well-designed lighting contributed to safety and security by ensuring visibility on the 

streets, sidewalks, and public places and discouraging criminal activities and accidents. 

However, Badly designed street lighting can cause uncomfortable light flashes and uneven 

lighting, leading to visibility and overall night appearance issues in urban areas. Consequently, 

urban planners must consider these effects when designing or modernizing street lighting 

systems (Wambui et al., 2022). This is where the transition to more sustainable and energy-

efficient solutions, such as LED or energy-saving solar streetlights, can mitigate many of these 

problems. With energy-efficient sources, such as LED or solar, at relatively lower costs for 

installation and energy, they aid in saving on initial costs of purchase and installation, provide 

low energy usage, save on costs, and provide better lighting quality with low maintenance for 

better urban areas (Luusa, 2019). Cities can improve their infrastructure by improving on the 

shortfalls of conventional street lighting; this transition in the energy sector can improve the 

sustainability of cities in every way possible. 

2.5 Local and International Regulatory Framework Towards 

Decarbonization 

 Decarbonization, especially of urban infrastructure and street lighting, is a constantly 

moving target under the umbrella, mainly consisting of a thicket of local and international 

regulatory frameworks that guide the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and sustainable 

development (Osano & Kingiri, 2021). The frameworks are now important in guiding light 

from conventional to sustainable light. 



18 

2.5.1 International Regulatory Frameworks 

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 

 UNFCCC is one of the most vital international treaties to combat climate change. 

UNFCCC, through its offshoot, the Paris Agreement, entails a commitment by countries to 

effectively bring down global warming by reducing it to well below 2 degrees Celsius and 

doing their best to put it beneath 1.5 degrees Celsius. The treaty, in other words, encourages 

nations to implement measures currently by lowering the store or cutting down on carbon 

emissions through means like the transition to renewable energies and energy-efficient 

technologies like solar street lighting. 

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 

 The United Nations developed SDGs to push the world toward a better and sustainable 

future. Under this, Goal 7 works towards providing clean and affordable energy (Luusa, 2019). 

It further seeks to increase the use of renewable energy and improve energy efficiency. In this 

category falls solar street lighting, which provides a clean and sustainable use of lighting 

methods instead of traditional ones. 

International Energy Agency (IEA) 

 The IEA advocates reliable, affordable, and clean energy policies. It gives guidance on 

integrating renewable energy into national energy policies. In particular, the IEA's Energy 

Efficiency policy recommendations underscore the need to use energy-efficient technologies 

in urban infrastructure. 

European Union Directives 

 The EU has established stringent regulations about the Energy Efficiency Directive and 

the Renewable Energy Directive (Welfle et al., 2020). These regulations give binding targets 

on energy efficiency and renewable energy use and encourage member states to invest in 

sustainable infrastructural solutions, like solar street lighting. 

2.5.2 Local Regulatory Environments 

Kenya Vision 2030 

 Kenya Vision 2030 is the long-term national development blueprint seeking to make a 

newly industrializing, middle-income country Kenya. The program mainly focuses on the 

development of sustainable urban infrastructures. On the same note, it promotes the integration 

of renewable energy technologies like Solar Street Lighting—eliminating carbon emissions 

and increasing the general energy mix.  

Kenya National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) 



19 

 This policy document provides the anchor for Kenya's climate change mitigation and 

adaptation roadmap. One of the key Intervention Areas in this strategic attention is embracing 

energy efficiency and using renewable energy. Solar Street Lighting is one of those visible 

steps in implementing NCCAP, which, in the spirit of a national campaign, seeks to cut down 

greenhouse gas emissions to a considerable level (Wambui et al., 2022). 

Energy (Solar Photovoltaic Systems) Regulations 2012 

 Under the Energy and Petroleum Regulatory Authority, EPRA, these are the regulations 

that provide the standards and guidelines for implementing and operationalizing Solar PV 

systems within the nation. It aims to ensure quality and safety in installation works, promoting 

the mainstreaming of solar technologies in applications that include street lighting. 

Kenya's Energy Act, 2019 

 The Energy Act provides a broad legal framework for developing energy and provisions 

for renewable energy and energy efficiency. The Act has further imposed an obligation to adopt 

sustainable energy practices that make it even easier for municipalities to implement solar street 

lighting projects (Welfle et al., 2020). 

Challenges and Opportunities 

 The regulatory frameworks provide a solid basis for promoting decarbonization via 

sustainable street lighting, although enforcement and compliance issues remain problematic. 

There may be challenges in successful regulation implementation due to the lack of enough 

financial resources, technical capacity, and bureaucratic hurdles. There is an opportunity to 

leverage international funding mechanisms through the Green Climate Fund and partnerships 

with international agencies to support local action (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 2021). The second 

part of the opportunities is leveraging public-private collaboration to facilitate innovation and 

investment in sustainable urban infrastructure. 

 

2.6 Technical and Technological Gaps in Solar Street Lighting Systems 

Solutions 

 Some technical and technological challenges must be addressed when switching to solar 

street lighting to garner maximum effectiveness and reliability. Some gaps remain even though 

there have been significant advancements in this field. Solar panels are the core component of 

solar street lighting systems since they convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. This is 

very important for the efficiency of the solar panels. Current commercial solar panels have an 

efficiency level of about 15–20%, which means that a significant portion of the sunlight is not 



20 

converted to usable energy (Akomolafe, 2023). Research and development should be ongoing 

to increase the efficiency of photovoltaic cells to make solar street lighting systems more 

effective when used in parts with poor sunlight reception.  

 The reliability of solar streetlights is significantly dependent on the storage capacity 

and lifespan of the battery. Many challenges face current battery technologies such as lead-acid 

and lithium-ion; these include a limited lifespan and problems with charging efficiency, 

especially at extreme temperatures (Luusa, 2019). Tremendous improvements in battery 

technology—like the envisioned solid-state batteries—are set to offer more durable and highly 

efficient energy storage solutions suitable for use with solar street lights. The solar street 

lighting systems are subjected to different kinds of weather, notably rain, dust, and extreme 

temperatures. The durability of the solar panel, battery, and other hardware components must 

also be enhanced to withstand harsh environmental conditions. Extended lifespan and more 

reliable systems can be ensured using improved materials and, sometimes, protective coatings 

(Osano & Kingiri, 2021). 

 Regular maintenance is important to get the best out of street solar lighting systems. 

However, most rural and urban areas still lack the technical personnel needed for proper 

maintenance. This could be addressed by simplifying the design and automatically providing 

self-diagnostic and maintenance features (Welfle et al., 2020). This can be achieved by 

implementing innovative technologies, such as sensors and IoT, which can help raise the 

efficiency and functionality of solar street lighting to a whole new level. Smart controls can 

effectively allow adaptive lighting so the light is bright when the presence of pedestrians or 

vehicles is detected. Their integration, however, requires dense communication networks and 

additional investments.  

 Although off-grid, when solar street lighting systems are grid-integrated, they will 

provide backup power and enhanced reliability (Arent et al., 2020). The hybridization of these 

systems will need compatible infrastructure and regulatory support for their failure-proof 

operation. Innovation and design improvements are the best techniques to help cover such 

technical and technological gaps for improved performance and adoption in solar street lighting 

systems (Wambui et al., 2022). Overcoming these challenges will allow solar street lighting to 

become a more viable and sustainable solution for urban and rural areas.  

 



21 

2.7 Street Lighting Engineering Standards 

 Engineering standards for street lighting are more important, together with ways to 

ensure the efficacy, safety, and reliability of lighting systems in the urban context. Such 

guidelines and specifications include lighting design, particularly installing, operating, and 

maintaining lighting systems (Rauland & Newman, 2019). They ensure adequate lighting for 

clear visibility and security while minimizing energy use and environmental impact. 

 International Standard: Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) provides 

comprehensive guidelines for street lighting design, including recommended 

illumination levels, uniformity ratios, and glare control. IES RP-8-18 is a key 

publication that provides lodging light for the specification of different types of 

roadways and traffic conditions to meet the requirements of drivers, pedestrians, and 

cyclists (Gorham, 2017). 

 International Commission on Illumination (CIE): CIE offers global lighting quality and 

performance guidelines. Standards like CIE 115:2010, Lighting of Roadways for Motor 

and Pedestrian Traffic, deal with illumination levels of luminance and uniformity and 

require the color rendering of street lights. All these standards help provide a safe and 

comfortable visual environment. 

 European Standards (EN): EN 13201 is the European standard for road lighting. EN 

13201 comprises several parts covering performance requirements, design criteria, and 

energy efficiency. The requirements shall ensure that compliant lighting systems 

subjected to different parameters guarantee a common and constant quality of lighting 

installation throughout Europe concerning performance in the main task areas of road 

users, thus enhancing safety and sustainability. 

 National Standard: American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards, in 

particular, ANSI/IES RP-8, describe the aspects of technical requirements for street 

lighting to be realized within the United States. These innovative roadway lighting 

designs must derive from standards ensuring feasible layouts that supplement adequate 

lighting for security while at the same time minimizing excessive energy use and light 

pollution (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 2021). 

 British Standards (BS): BS 5489-1:2020 provides a code of practice for the design of 

road lighting in the U.K. BS 5489-1 includes guidelines for lighting classes, 

performance metrics, and energy efficiency (Luusa, 2019). This British standard 



22 

assures that street lighting in the U.K. meets safety requirements and is incorporated 

with various sustainability paths. 

Key Features of Street Lighting Standards 

 Illumination Levels: Standards set minimum carriageway illumination levels to ensure 

all road users have enough visibility. These levels vary depending on the type of road, 

density of traffic, and prevailing environmental conditions. 

 Uniformity and Glare Control: The uniformity ratios ensure that the light distribution 

is even and prevent the creation of dark areas and unnecessary brightness. The control 

of glare is important to reduce discomfort and eventual accidents for vehicle drivers 

and pedestrians (Welfle et al., 2020). 

 Energy Efficiency: New standards emphasize energy efficiency. Energy-conservation 

technologies such as LED lighting and solar-powered systems are preferred to reduce 

carbon footprint and operational costs. 

 Safety and Maintenance: This standard provides guidelines for safe installation 

practices and contains all the requirements for installing and maintaining street lighting 

systems (Akomolafe, 2023). 

 

2.8 Cost Benefit Analysis of Solar Street Lighting 

 Solarizing street lights becomes one bright spot towards achieving more accessible 

urban road infrastructure, eventually resulting in cost savings, environmental benefits, and 

energy security. A typical CBA of Solar street lighting will consider available quantitative and 

qualitative aspects of the impact compared to conventional lighting systems. 

Initial Costs 

 Capital cost: The cost of implementing solar street lighting will be higher than that of 

traditional streetlights, considering the cost of the photovoltaic panel, battery, and 

advanced control system (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 2021). However, solar prices have 

been reducing significantly in the last decade with increased mass production. 

 Installation cost: The installation cost of a solar streetlight will be cheaper or 

competitive with conventional systems. Further, there is no complicated trenching and 

cabling for a solar streetlight unit. All the solar units are single units that only need pole 

placement and light mounting. This will minimize labor costs. 

Operational Costs 



23 

 Energy saving: In the case of solar street lights, the electricity generated from sunlight 

becomes an enormous energy savings. Unlike grid-based electricity lighting, a solar 

light will not have electricity charges as all the operation is independent of the grid. 

Therefore, it will benefit a municipality or commercial business with a high electricity 

cost (Wambui et al., 2022). 

 Operation and Maintenance: A solar streetlight's maintenance cost is cheaper than 

other conventional systems. Even if the batteries need replacement after 5-7 years, the 

lifespan of many solar lights is long due to the use of robust and long-life LED 

technology, minimizing the maintenance cost (Luusa, 2019). In addition, the system is 

decentralized, so there are no complexities; when one part fails, it does not interfere 

with other parts, saving time and money on repair. 

Environmental Benefits 

 Carbon Emissions Reduction: Solar street lighting systems significantly reduce 

greenhouse gas emissions by replacing conventional lighting systems that use fossil 

fuel energy (Rauland & Newman, 2019). Every solar street light helps mitigate the 

carbon footprint toward global climate goals and local environmental policies. 

 Little or no Light Pollution: Solar street lights, most often fitted with LEDs, have a 

higher capability to control the distribution of light, thereby reducing light pollution. 

They are designed with intelligent lighting controls, such as motion and dimming 

sensors, so they have improved energy efficiency and reduced excess illumination. 

Social and Economic Benefits 

 Improved Public Safety: Adequately illuminated streets guarantee public safety and 

reduce crime and accidents. Solar streetlights provide reliable lighting in areas where 

grid electricity is undefined or unavailable, improving the quality of life and offering 

security to those living in such areas (Welfle et al., 2020). 

 Energy Independence: Solar-based streetlights help improve energy independence. 

They do this by harnessing locally available solar energy, reducing dependence on 

foreign energy sources, and, therefore, eliminating the details of energy security 

solutions, especially in remote or underdeveloped regions. 

 Job creation: Exploiting solar street lighting in developing regions can be a source of 

job creation—jobs concerning manufacturing, installation, and maintenance. This, in 

turn, creates economic development and enhances skills acclaimed. 

The Long-Term Financial Savings 



24 

 Return on Investment (ROI): Though the installation cost is high, the ROI for solar 

street lights is positive because, throughout their life, a considerable amount is saved 

on energy and maintenance expenses. Usually, payback is between 3 and 5 years, after 

which the benefits will continue accruing with minimal ongoing expenses (Maina et al., 

2022). 

 Funding and Incentives: Municipalities can reduce their part-financing through grants, 

subsidies, and other financial incentives barely availed by governments and 

international agencies; they speed up the dynamics of getting into solar street lighting. 

 

2.10 Social, Economic, and Environmental Benefits of Solar Street Lighting 

 Solar street lighting has many social, economic, and environmental benefits, and it is 

becoming a sound and sustainable solution for urban infrastructure. 

Social Benefits 

I. Solar streetlights offer reliable and constant lighting in urban regions to improve visual 

conditions and, in the process, mitigate the roots of accidents and crime (Sutopo et al., 

2020). Enhanced street lighting means the residents always feel safe and secure, 

encouraging outdoor activities and interactions with other community members. 

II. Consistent lighting increases the duration of safe traveling and various activities. This 

is particularly helpful for students who can study after nightfall and businesses that can 

operate longer, thus improving the quality of life (Wambui et al., 2022). 

Economic Benefits 

I. Although the initial installation cost of solar streetlights is high, the long-term savings 

are enormous. The cost of electricity is eliminated, and maintenance costs are 

minimized due to the long life of LED technology and independence from power grids. 

Ultimately, such economies will soon pay for themselves and give back in terms of ROI 

(Gorham, 2017). 

II. The application of solar street lighting systems creates employment at the local level, 

specifically in the assembly, erection, and even maintenance processes. This will help 

boost a community's economy and skill levels. 

III. Solar street lighting stimulates the local economy through job creation in the assembly, 

installation, and maintenance sectors. This fosters economic growth and boosts skills 

in that society (Welfle et al., 2020). 



25 

IV. Solar street lighting caps the use of fossil fuels and grid electricity, ultimately leading 

to energy sovereignty. This is assured for areas with erratic power supplies and those 

interested in controlling energy imports. 

Environmental Benefits 

I. Solar streetlights harness renewable energy, eliminating greenhouse gas emissions tied 

to classical, fossil fuel-based electricity generation. This aligns with the global goals of 

mitigating climate change and national and local environmental policy. 

II. Solar streetlights usually use LED techniques, which allow better control over light 

distribution and intensity (Baburajan, 2021). Thus, they reduce light pollution, 

protecting the natural nocturnal environment and the well-being of nocturnal wildlife. 

III. solar street lighting observes the use of energy from resources that can be renewed, thus 

reducing the dependence on non-renewable energy sources (Luusa, 2019). This 

sustainable approach stays in harmony with conserving limited resources and 

promoting green technology use. 

 

2.11 Concept Mapping on Decarbonization of Urban Road Infrastructure 

 Concept mapping provides a visual diagram of the main elements and their 

relationships in decarbonizing urban road infrastructure by implementing solar street lighting. 

It systematically organizes and represents the various elements and their connections, allowing 

one to understand every aspect of the project properly. 

Key Components 

Technology for Solar Street Lighting 

 Solar Panels: Collect solar energy and convert it into electrical energy. 

 Batteries: Energy storage for use at night and during cloudy periods. 

 LED Lights: High-efficiency and long-life lighting. 

 Smart Controllers: Energy usage regulation and performance optimization. 

Environmental Impact 

 CO2 Emission Reduction: There is less dependence on fossil fuels, which reduces 

greenhouse gas emissions. 

 Control of Light Pollution: Better lighting that reduces light spill and glare is 

advantageous for the no-light environment. 

Economic Aspects 

 Return on Initial Investment: The cost of installation is high. 



26 

 Savings in the Long Term: Reduced electricity bills and maintenance costs in the long 

term (Wambui et al., 2022). 

 New Spin-offs of Employment: In manufacturing, implementing, and maintaining solar 

streetlights. 

Social Benefits 

 Public Safety: Reduction in accidents and crime due to better visibility 

 Quality of Life: It encourages evening activities, improving quality of life. 

Regulatory Framework 

 Local Regulations: Compliance with local and national standards, especially at the 

municipal level, for street lighting. 

 International Guidelines: Alignment with global standards on environmental 

sustainability and energy efficiency. 

Technical Issues 

 System Integration: Ensuring solar panels, batteries, and lights interact smoothly. 

 Maintenance: Resolving technical problems and securing the longevity of the systems 

(Rauland & Newman, 2019). 

Implementation strategies 

 Pilot Projects: Implementing and adjusting solar street lighting solutions in a few 

demonstrations locations 

 Stakeholder Integration: Embracing community members, local government 

authorities, and private sector partners 

 Funding Mechanisms: Attracting investments and grants to roll out the project 

interlinkages (Luusa, 2019). 

 Technology and Environment: The technology area of solar street lighting directly 

impacts the environmental aspect by reducing emissions and energy conservation. 

 Economics and Society: Reducing energy costs results in savings that can easily be 

used for more critical social needs (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 2021). 

 Regulations and Implementation: A supportive environment for implementing 

technology projects through favorable regulation to enhance technology application 

and operational principles. 

 Technical and Economics: Some technical issues have cost implications on the final 

system, and solving the technical problems through creativity can further bring down 



27 

the cost and improve the system's reliability, hence increasing the economic viability 

of the solution (Welfle et al., 2020). 

 These interrelations will allow the stakeholders to visually perceive the multi-

dimensionality of the process of decarbonization of urban road infrastructure and locate the 

most sensitive areas for action. This holistic view guarantees that every factor is appropriately 

considered in planning and executing the transition toward solar street lighting, ultimately 

ensuring sustainable urban development. 

 

 

Figure 2. 2: Concept Mapping on Decarbonization of Urban Road Infrastructure 

2.12 Research Gaps in Literature 

 Various research has been conducted on solar street lighting and its possible benefits. 

However, several gaps exist that obstruct the real meaning and, in turn, efficient provision of 

decarbonized urban road infrastructure in Kenya (Luusa, 2019). The solution to these research 

gaps is imperative for robust and scalable solutions that can generally adapt to different urban 

settings.  

1. Site-Specific Environmental Impact Assessment 

 While there are established environmental benefits from solar street lighting in various 

cities across the globe, there is an absence of site-specific assessments in Kenyan urban setups. 



28 

Rigorous studies have to quantify and isolate the exact amount of CO2 emissions reduction 

and other such co-benefits in Kenya's unique climatic, urban density, and energy infrastructure. 

2. Economic Viability and Cost Analysis 

 While cost-benefit analysis has been drawn for solar street lighting, such analysis often 

depends on generic or outdated data. There is a need for regional levels of analysis to consider 

this factor, in addition to the current prevailing market prices, local labor costs, and potential 

funding mechanisms in Kenya (Maina et al., 2022). This includes long-term financial modeling 

to assess returns on investment and economic sustainability of large-scale solar street lighting 

projects. 

3. Social Acceptance and Community Impact 

 Research on the social implications of solar street lighting is scant. Levels of 

community perception and acceptance and social aspects when transitioning from conventional 

to solar streetlights need to be understood (Wambui et al., 2022). Specifically, it is unclear how 

improved lighting affects local businesses, pedestrian activities, and public safety in urban 

areas. 

4. Adaptation and innovative technology 

 There is a gap in research focusing on how solar street lighting technology can be 

adapted for its use under local and rural conditions. This includes the durability of solar panels 

and batteries in Kenya's diverse climatic conditions, the potential for integrating innovative 

technology, and innovations in storage solutions to ensure consistent lighting during cloudy 

periods. 

5. Policy and Regulatory Frameworks 

 Although there are international standards and local policies regarding renewable 

energy, specific regulatory frameworks addressing the deployment of solar street lighting in 

urban areas are very few (Welfle et al., 2020). Research is needed to develop and tailor relevant 

policies that will make it easier and possible to integrate solar lighting into already existing 

infrastructure within the urban set-up in a manner that includes environmental and standard 

safety assurance. 

6. Long-term Maintenance and Sustainability 

 Most studies look at solar street lighting systems' long-term maintenance requirements 

and sustainability. Important research issues should focus on developing efficient maintenance 

protocols, the lifespan of components in local conditions, and strategies for end-of-life disposal 

and recycling of both solar panels and batteries. 

 



29 

2.13 Conceptual Framework 

 The conceptual framework of decarbonizing urban road infrastructure through 

implementing solar street lighting in Kenya is set at the intersection of several key pillars 

geared towards sustainable, low-carbon urban development (Osano & Kingiri, 2021). The 

framework integrates technological, environmental, social, economic, and policy dimensions 

to ensure holism in the approach toward achieving the desired outcomes. The conceptual 

framework imputes adopting solar street lighting as a clean and renewable energy solution to 

reduce carbon emissions from conventional street lighting systems (Luusa, 2019). Solar street 

lighting systems store solar energy in batteries collected during the day using photoelectric 

panels for use during the night. Significant emissions of greenhouse gases can be reduced by 

replacing the traditional, on-grid streetlights with solar ones, helping Kenya honor her climate 

commitments. 

 The framework recognizes the necessity of grounding solar street lighting solutions 

within the local urban context. City and town conditions, such as density, traffic, pedestrian 

activity, and security features, shall influence the lighting design to meet the peculiarities of 

Kenyan cities and towns (Welfle et al., 2020). The durability of the solar components also has 

to be factored in the variable climatic conditions experienced in Kenya, as well as the 

availability of the skills of maintenance personnel to take care of the artifacts. The conceptual 

framework provides many other benefits from solar street lighting and carbon reduction. 

Improved lighting increases public security, activity within public areas, and social inclusion 

similarly, especially in the informal areas of a town or urban zones (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 

2021). Through solar street lighting, public lighting from street to street and in other public 

spaces will therefore contribute to breathing life into various townships and urban areas, 

increasing the quality of life for individuals, residents, and tourists. 

 Policy and regulatory frameworks are significant vehicles for facilitating the large-scale 

adoption of solar street lighting (Welfle et al., 2020). The need for supportive policies that will 

provide investment incentives to deploy renewable infrastructure and harmonize regulatory 

procedures to meet environmental and safety specifications is envisaged in the conceptual 

framework. However, the role of the policy framework is to create an enabling environment 

for deploying solar street lighting, catalyze private-sector engagement, and unlock funding 

avenues for this and other sustainable urban development initiatives. The conceptual 

framework defines roadmaps for transitioning towards decarbonized urban road infrastructures 

in Kenya through the strategic deployment of solar street lighting (Luusa, 2019). The 



30 

realization of synergies between technological innovation, stewardship of the environment, 

social equity and well-being, and policy coherence offers enormous potential for developing 

resilient and sustainable cities that will thrive in the future's low-carbon economy.  

  



31 

Chapter 3: Research Methodology 

3.1 Introduction 

 The same methodology was employed for assessing the deployment and 

decarbonization impact of solar street lighting in Kenya, with Mombasa City forming the 

epicenter of my study. The research design, description of the case study, methods of data 

collection, stages of model development, choice of simulation software, and evaluation of 

results are explained in this chapter. This study, through adopting a mixed-method approach 

and using SPSS version 28 for data analysis, distilled a thorough understanding of how solar 

street lighting abates carbon emissions and ensures improvement in urban sustainability 

variables for Mombasa. 

 

3.2 Research Design 

 This mixed-method design utilizes qualitative and quantitative techniques to 

comprehensively analyze the implementation and impact of solar street lighting in Mombasa 

City. The study has several phases: exploratory research, data collection, model development, 

simulation, and evaluation. Preliminary exploratory research involves a review of available 

literature and consultations with experts about the existing street lighting solutions and their 

carbon-emission impacts (Amuyunzu & Kisimbii, 2021). This approach identifies the 

significant variables and helps in developing data collection instruments. Quantitative data was 

collected through surveys and existing databases with information on the existing street 

lighting infrastructure, energy utilization data, and information about carbon emissions 

(Baburajan, 2021). This would constitute baseline metrics to understand the magnitude of the 

problem. 

 The qualitative data was gathered through interviews with stakeholders such as city 

planners, environmental experts, and local government officials. These interviews gave 

insights into the challenges and opportunities of making solar street lighting a reality. Data 

collected was used to develop a simulation model using SPSS version 28. This model analyzed 

the potential transition to solar street lighting and its impact on carbon emissions and urban 

infrastructure (Akomolafe, 2023). It equally examined economic justification and social 

benefits accrued from such a transition. Finally, the simulation results were evaluated so that 

the effectiveness of the solar street lighting method in reducing carbon emissions can be 

determined. Moreover, the evaluation was based on a cost-benefit analysis and considerations 



32 

concerning social, economic, and environmental impacts, providing a broad view of the 

potential benefit of this technology. 

3.3 Case Study Description 

 The case study concentrated on Mombasa's southern Bypass. The road is a 38km dual 

carriage highway owned and operated by the Kenya National Highway Authority (KeNHA). 

The road is the main entry and exit to the strategic port, a key gateway for trade in East Africa. 

Additionally, it links the central city of Mombasa Island to the key strategic transport 

infrastructure of Moi International Airport, the Kenya Navy and United Nations (UN) Forward 

Air Force operating base, and the Mombasa Standard Gauge Railway (SGR) station. It is, 

therefore, the main road that feeds traffic and cargo to the Mambas a city and acts as the new 

connecting route to the tourism-rich southern Coast through the Mwache interchange, 

decongesting the Likoni ferry crossing by 90% of vehicular traffic. 

 This road, like the rest of the road network, the city has a conventional, grid-powered 

streetlights network. Totaled to 2008 units and rated at 150w per unit at an efficiency of 

120lumens/watt, the lights are installed in double arm and single arm distribution powered by 

11 control pillars interspaced at 4km distances on two substations rates 150kva located at Gate 

A and mwache interchange consuming a daily power demand of 3,615 Kwhr at a kshs 13.2M 

annual billing to KeNHA. 

 The coastal region, in general, to which this road is found primarily consumes about 

9.2GWH of electricity for lighting up the streets. Street lighting happens at night. The region’s 

base load is anchored daily by two thermal power plants, Kipevu II and Rabai, which combined 

supply a cumulative 33MW of electricity for 16 hours, data rising to 9.6GWH of electricity 

annually, a 55% mix ratio to the overall consumption demand, of the region. 

  The study area, therefore, provides a sample study of assessment about the level of potential 

benefits that the solar street lighting system brought in terms of a reduction in GHG, 

improvements in energy efficiency, and enhancement in public safety (Maina et al., 2022) 

against an overall average supply of 17% thermal energy supply against 103GWH of electricity 

consumed on street lighting countrywide. This specifies a general scope in which missed 

opportunities can be uncovered by other researchers studying other urban settings of Kenya or 

abroad. 

 

 

 



33 

Table 3. 1: Distribution of the Respondents 

ORGANIZATION POSITION OF 

RESPONDENTS 

INTERVIEW 

POPULATION 

QUESTIONNAIRE POPULATION 

KENYA POWER AND 

LIGHTING 

Regional Managers 0 8 

 Head of Safety and 

Sustainability 

1 0 

COUNTY 

GOVERNMENTS 

Department of Energy and 

Environment 

3 5 

 Department of Roads and 

Infrastructure 

0 15 

KENYA URBAN ROADS 

AUTHORITY (KURA) 

Electrical Engineering 

Department 

1 0 

 Climate Proofing and 

Sustainability Department 

1 2 

KENYA NATIONAL 

HIGHWAYS 

AUTHORITY (KUNHA) 

Special Projects 

Department 

1 0 

 Climate Proofing and 

Sustainability Department 

1 0 

MINISTRY OF 

TRANSPORT AND 

INFRASTRUCTURE 

(MTI) 

Head of Pu