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Factors influencing customer satisfaction with 

services offered by tours and travel agencies in 

Nairobi. 

Adundo, Martin   
Strathmore Business School  
Strathmore University 

 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

Recommended Citation 

Adundo, M. (2023). Factors influencing customer satisfaction with services offered by tours and travel 

agencies in Nairobi [Strathmore University]. http://hdl.handle.net/11071/13413 

 
 
 
 

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FACTORS INFLUENCING CUSTOMER SATISFACTION WITH SERVICES 

OFFERED BY TOURS AND TRAVEL AGENCIES IN NAIROBI 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ADUNDO MARTIN 

MCOM/072649 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 

FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER IN COMMERCE, STRATHMORE 

UNIVERSITY BUSINESS SCHOOL 

STRATHMORE UNIVERSITY 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

JUNE, 2023



i 

 

DECLARATION 

I hereby declare that the work contained in this research project is my own, original work, 

and has not been previously published or submitted for any other degree or award. I have 

properly cited and referenced any sources used in the project, and I have obtained appropriate 

consent from any participants involved in the research. I take full responsibility for the 

content and accuracy of the work presented. 

 

Adundo Martin 

7th June, 2023 

  

 

……………………………. 

 

Approval 

 

This research thesis of Adundo Martin was reviewed and approved by: 

 

Dr. Tabitha Waithaka (Supervisor)  

Lecture 

Strathmore University Business School 

7th June, 2023 

 

…

………………………………. 

 

Dr. Ceasar Mwangi 

Executive Dean 

Strathmore University Business School. 

  

Dr. Bernard Shibwabo 

Director, Office of Graduate Studies 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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DEDICATION 

To my parents, who have always supported and encouraged me in all my endeavours, and 

who have instilled in me a love of learning and a commitment to excellence. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

To God, who is the source of all knowledge and wisdom, and who guides and directs my 

path. I am also grateful to Strathmore Business School, which has provided me with the 

opportunity to pursue my studies and to conduct this research, and which has supported me 

with the resources and expertise necessary to complete this project. I would like to thank my 

supervisor Dr. Tabitha Waithaka, who has provided invaluable guidance and support 

throughout this research process, and who has helped me to develop my skills and knowledge 

as a researcher. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

DECLARATION.................................................................................................................. i 

DEDICATION..................................................................................................................... ii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. iv 

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii 

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix 

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... x 

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Background of the study ................................................................................................. 1 

1.1.1 Customer Satisfaction .............................................................................................. 2 

1.1.2 Factors Affecting Customer Satisfaction ................................................................ 4 

1.1.3 Tour and Travel Agencies in Kenya ........................................................................ 6 

1.2. Problem Statement ......................................................................................................... 8 

1.3 Research Objectives ...................................................................................................... 10 

1.3.1 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................ 10 

1.4 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 11 

1.5 Scope of the Study ........................................................................................................ 11 

1.6 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 11 

1.7 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 13 

CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 14 

LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 14 

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 14 



 

 

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2.2 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 14 

2.2.1 The Value-Percept Disparity Theory .................................................................... 14 

2.2.2 Complex Adaptive Theory .................................................................................... 16 

2.3 Empirical Review.......................................................................................................... 18 

2.3.1. Promotional Value and Customer Satisfaction .................................................... 18 

2.3.2 Functional Value and Customer Satisfaction ........................................................ 20 

2.3.3 Emotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ......................................................... 22 

2.3.4 Innovative Value and Customer Satisfaction ........................................................ 23 

2.4 Research Gap ................................................................................................................ 24 

2.5 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 27 

2.6 Operationalization of Study Variables .......................................................................... 29 

2.7 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 30 

CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 31 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 31 

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 31 

3.2 Research Philosophy ..................................................................................................... 31 

3.3 The Research Design .................................................................................................... 31 

3.4 Population of the Study ................................................................................................. 32 

3.5 Sampling Design ........................................................................................................... 32 

3.6 Data Collection Methods .............................................................................................. 33 

3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation .................................................................................... 34 

3.8 Quality of the Research ................................................................................................. 34 

3.8.1 Reliability Tests ..................................................................................................... 34 

3.8.2 Validity .................................................................................................................. 35 

3.9 Ethical Issues in Research ............................................................................................. 36 

3.10 Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................... 36 

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 37 

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ........................................................... 37 

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 37 

4.2 Response Rate and General Information of Respondents ............................................. 37 

4.2.1 Response Rate ....................................................................................................... 37 



 

 

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4.2.2 General Information of Respondents .................................................................... 38 

4.3 Descriptive Analysis ..................................................................................................... 43 

4.3.1 Customer Satisfaction of Tour and travel agencies ............................................... 43 

4.3.2 Promotional Value ................................................................................................. 44 

4.3.3 Functional Value ................................................................................................... 45 

4.3.4 Emotional Value .................................................................................................... 46 

4.3.5 Innovative Value ................................................................................................... 47 

4.4 Inferential Analysis ....................................................................................................... 48 

4.4.1 Effect of Promotional Value on Customer Satisfaction ........................................ 49 

4.4.2 Effect of Functional Value on Customer Satisfaction ........................................... 51 

4.4.3 Effect of Emotional Value on Customer Satisfaction ........................................... 53 

4.4.4 Effect of Innovative Value on Customer Satisfaction ........................................... 55 

4.5 Overall Regression Values and Customer Satisfaction ................................................ 57 

4.6 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 59 

CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 60 

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................... 60 

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 60 

5.2 Discussions of the Findings .......................................................................................... 60 

5.2.1 Promotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ..................................................... 60 

5.2.2 Functional Value and Customer Satisfaction ........................................................ 61 

5.2.3 Emotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ......................................................... 62 

5.2.4 Innovative Value and Customer Satisfaction ........................................................ 62 

5.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 63 

5.4 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 64 

5.4.1 Policy Recommendations ...................................................................................... 64 

5.4.2 Managerial Recommendations .............................................................................. 65 

5.4.3 Theoretical Recommendations .............................................................................. 65 

5.5 Study Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies ............................................... 65 

5.5.1 Geographical Limitation ........................................................................................ 65 



 

 

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5.5.2 Sampling Bias ........................................................................................................ 66 

5.5.3 Self-Reported Measures ........................................................................................ 66 

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 67 

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 77 

Appendix I: Letter of introduction ...................................................................................... 77 

Appendix II: Questionnaire................................................................................................. 78 

Appendix 3: List of Category A, B, and C KATO Members ............................................. 82 

Appendix 4: Timeline of Activities .................................................................................... 85 

Appendix 5: Research Budget ............................................................................................ 86 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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LIST OF TABLES 

Table 4.1: Choice of Tours and Travel Agency .................................................................. 25 

Table 4.2: Number of Years using the Travel Agency........................................................ 25 

Table 4.3: Times of using the Travel Agency Annually ..................................................... 25 

Table 4.4: Customer Satisfaction ........................................................................................ 25 

Table 4.5: Promotional Value ............................................................................................. 40 

Table 4.6: Functional Value ................................................................................................ 25 

Table 4.7: Emotional Value ................................................................................................ 41 

Table 4.8: Innovative Value ................................................................................................ 25 

Table 4.9: Correlation Promotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ............................... 49 

Table 4.10: Regression Summary Promotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ............ 49 

Table 4.11: ANOVA Summary Promotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ................ 50 

Table 4.12: Regression Coefficient Promotional Value and Customer Satisfaction .......... 50 

Table 4.13: Correlation Functional Value and Customer Satisfaction ............................... 51 

Table 4.14: Regression Summary Functional Value and Customer Satisfaction ............... 51 

Table 4.15: ANOVA Summary Functional Value and Customer Satisfaction .................. 52 

Table 4.16: Regression Coefficients Functional Value and Customer Satisfaction ........... 52 

Table 4.17: Correlation Emotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ................................ 53 

Table 4.18: Regression Summary Emotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ................ 54 

Table 4.19: ANOVA Summary Emotional Value and Customer Satisfaction ................... 54 

Table 4.20: Regression Coefficients Emotional Value and Customer Satisfaction............ 54 

Table 4.21: Correlation Innovative Value and Customer Satisfaction ............................... 55 

Table 4.22: Regression Summary Innovative Value and Customer Satisfaction ............... 56 

Table 4.23: ANOVA Summary Innovative Value and Customer Satisfaction .................. 56 

Table 4.24: Regression Coefficients Innovative Value and Customer Satisfaction ........... 56 

Table 4.25: Regression Summary Factors and Customer Satisfaction ............................... 57 

Table 4.26: ANOVA Summary Factors and Customer Satisfaction .................................. 57 

Table 4.27 Regression Coefficients Factors and Customer Satisfaction ............................ 58 



 

 

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LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. 

Figure 4.1: Response rate on pie chart ................................................................................ 38 

Figure 4.2: Age distribution of respondents on the bar graphError! Bookmark not defined. 

Figure 4.3: Gender .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. 

Figure 4.4: Level of Education on thebar graph ................. Error! Bookmark not defined. 

Figure 4.5: Choice of Tours and Travel Agency ................ Error! Bookmark not defined. 

Figure 4.6: Number of Years using the Travel Agency ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 

Figure 4.7: Times of using the Travel Agency Annually ... Error! Bookmark not defined. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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ABSTRACT 

Customer satisfaction is a measure of how well a product or service meets the needs and 

expectations of its customers. It is a complex and multi-dimensional construct that can be 

influenced by various factors such as product or service quality, price, convenience, 

responsiveness, and customer service. Customer satisfaction is generally considered to be a 

positive outcome, as it indicates that customers are happy with the product or service they 

have received. To this end, this study aimed to investigate the factors influencing customer 

satisfaction with services offered by high-end tours and travel agencies in Nairobi County. 

The factors that the study considered were promotional value, functional value, emotional 

value, and innovative value. The study adopted a descriptive research design. The target 

population in this study was customers who utilize the services of high-end tour and travel 

agencies in Nairobi. A sample of customers from four high-end tour agencies, Abercrombie 

& Kent Ltd, African Horizons Travel Safaris, Bush and Beyond Ltd, and Pollmans Tours 

Safaris Ltd-Msa was selected using judgmental sampling technique. Data was collected using 

a structured questionnaire. It was then analysed using descriptive statistics and inferential 

statistics and presented using tables and figures. The questionnaires issued were responded to 

and returned to the researcher. The correlation tests for promotional value, functional value, 

emotional value, and innovative value and customer satisfaction showed there existed a 

significant and strong positive effect these four factors on the Customer Satisfaction of the 

tour and travel agencies in Kenya. The research concluded that all four factors significantly 

influence customer satisfaction with the services provided by tours and travel agencies in 

Nairobi. The study recommends that the management of tour and travel agencies aim to 

increase their promotional, functional, emotional, and innovative values to increase their 

customer satisfaction and improve their brands. Policy-makers should encourage 

collaboration among tours and travel agencies, industry associations, government bodies, and 

other relevant stakeholders to create platforms for knowledge sharing, best practice exchange, 

and joint initiatives to improve overall service quality and customer satisfaction. The study 

limitations include the focus only on high-end tours and travel agencies. Also, the study has 

geographic limitation as it only focuses on Nairobi. Future research should build upon 

existing theories and frameworks related to customer satisfaction and service quality in the 

context of tours and travel agencies. Future studies could consider a more diverse, 

incorporate objective measures or employ mixed-method approaches and representative 

sample to obtain a comprehensive understanding of customer satisfaction. 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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1 

 

CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Background of the study 

The globalization of the world economy has heightened the pressure on businesses to 

enhance their competitiveness and ensure long-term sustainability. Organizations have to 

keep reinvent their business processes, procedures, policies, and their market niche, as a way 

of staying relevant and sustainable (Anand & Selvaraj, 2013). To remain sustainable, 

organizations have to be profitable, and equally, have to gain sizeable control of their market 

in terms of the products and services they are offering on the market. As such, the threat of 

new entrants particularly with multinationals have organizations are continuously forcing 

organizations into strategic reinventions as a way of dealing with the global pressure to offer 

products and services at the global market standards (Arbore & Busacca, 2016). Many 

organizations are therefore pointing to customer satisfaction as a way of developing and 

differentiating their services from their competitors, and also as a tool for developing 

competitive advantage (Narteh & Kuada, 2014). The customer assumes a pivotal role in 

every business, and the success of the enterprise is inconceivable without their presence. 

Working closely with customers is of paramount importance. They are not only a vital 

component of the business but also an integral part of the market. In order to thrive, 

companies must provide products and services of exceptional quality, resulting in highly 

satisfied and loyal customers (Nazariah et al., 2022).  

In Africa, one of the major challenges faced by managers in the hospitality industry is to 

consistently deliver and maintain high levels of customer satisfaction (Ofosu-Boateng & 

Acquaye, 2020). In addition to Africa, managers in the hospitality industry in various regions 

face similar challenges in maintaining high levels of customer satisfaction. For instance, in 

Europe, where tourism is a thriving industry, managers in popular destinations such as Paris, 

Rome, and Barcelona strive to consistently deliver exceptional experiences to their guests 

(Cheng et al., 2016). In Asia, countries like Thailand, Japan, and Maldives attract a 

significant number of tourists, and managers in the hospitality industry there work hard to 

meet the expectations of diverse international visitors. Customer requirements for quality 

products and service in the tourism industry have become increasingly evident to any that 

wants to remain in business. The consumer’s satisfaction is a consequence of the purchasing 

activities, of the consumption and of the use of some goods and services and defines both as 



 

 

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an emotional answer, and a cognitive answer (Song & Lim, 2022). Quality of service and 

customer satisfaction is critical factors for success of any business (Yuniari & Giantari, 

2020). As Willie (2020) points out: enterprises exist because they have a customer to serve. 

The key to achieve sustainable advantage lies in delivering high quality service that results in 

satisfied customers (Gakii et al., 2022). Service quality and customer satisfaction are key 

factors in the battle to obtain competitive advantage and customer retention. 

The Kenya Tourism Research Institute (TRI) (2022) reported that in 2022, there was a 

remarkable growth in earnings from inbound tourism. The earnings reached Kshs. 268.09 

billion, a significant increase from Kshs. 146.51 billion in 2021, reflecting an impressive 

growth rate of 83%. According to the TRI data, tourism made a direct contribution to the 

growth of hotel industry and other related sectors. There has been a wide range of domestic 

hotels and hospitality enterprises whose service offering not only complements those of 

world class hotels but also serve the domestics guests or tourists (Mbuthia et. al., 2013). 

However, according to Watiki (2014) the domestic tours industry in Kenya is experiencing 

increasing competition with major international brands increasingly setting up operations in 

Kenya hence the need for the current study to establish factors influencing customer 

satisfaction with the services offered by the tour and travel agencies. 

1.1.1 Customer Satisfaction 

According to Andrianto et al. (2023), customer satisfaction is the judgment a consumer 

makes in relation to his/her sense of fulfillment related to his/her choices about the purchase 

and use of specific products and services. Various definitions of customer satisfaction are 

found in literature. One of the earliest definitions of customer satisfaction was proposed by 

Cardozo (1965). According to Cardozo (1965), customer satisfaction is the result of a 

cognitive comparison between the expected and actual performance of a product or service. 

He suggested that customers evaluate a product or service based on their pre-purchase 

expectations, and their satisfaction is determined by the degree to which the product or 

service meets or exceeds those expectations. Arslanagic-Kalajdzic et al. (2020) highlights 

customer satisfaction as an emotional response resulting from a comparison of pre-purchase 

expectations with the actual performance of the product or service. He proposed that 

customer satisfaction is a multi-dimensional construct, and it depends on both product-related 

and service-related factors. Oliver's study also revealed that customer satisfaction is 

positively related to customer loyalty and repurchase intentions. 



 

 

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Mustaffa et al. (2016) developed a new model of service quality that emphasized the 

importance of customer expectations. They suggested that customer satisfaction is influenced 

by the degree to which the service meets or exceeds customer expectations. They further 

added that customer expectations are shaped by past experiences, word-of-mouth 

communication, and marketing communications. Similarly, Díaz and Duque (2021) 

formulated a satisfaction model that focused on the relationship between customer 

expectations, perceived performance, and customer satisfaction. According to their model, 

customer satisfaction is the result of a comparison between customer expectations and 

perceived performance. They suggested that the greater the gap between expectations and 

perceived performance, the lower the customer satisfaction.  

 

Lin and Chen (2012) looks at customer satisfaction as a customer's subjective evaluation of 

the service received, based on a comparison of perceived performance against expectations. 

The study focused specifically on the impact of customer satisfaction on customer loyalty in 

the airline industry. The study acknowledged that customer satisfaction is a complex 

construct that is influenced by various factors, including service quality, price, convenience, 

and personal expectations. As such, the study focused specifically on the impact of service 

quality and customer satisfaction on customer loyalty. Kchaou et al. (2018) study scrutinized 

the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and customer satisfaction and 

loyalty in the telecommunication industry. The study found that CSR positively influenced 

customer satisfaction and loyalty.  

Alves et al. (2019) conducted a study on customer satisfaction in the hospitality industry. 

They defined customer satisfaction as the degree to which customers perceive their 

expectations to have been met or exceeded by the service provided. They found that customer 

satisfaction is positively related to customer loyalty, and customers are more likely to 

recommend the service to others. Hong and Lee (2020) study examines the relationship 

between customer satisfaction, trust, and loyalty in the online shopping industry. Hong and 

Lee's study defined customer satisfaction as "a customer's overall evaluation of their 

experience with the online shopping service". The study found that trust mediates the 

relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty. According to the study, positive 

impact of customer satisfaction on loyalty is partially explained by the positive impact of 

customer satisfaction on trust.  



 

 

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Customer satisfaction continues to be a crucial factor for businesses to consider in their 

operations, as it directly impacts customer loyalty, repeat business, and positive word-of-

mouth advertising. Several recent studies have further highlighted the importance of customer 

satisfaction. A study by Ruswanti et al. (2020) found that customer satisfaction has a 

significant positive impact on repurchase intention, Purchase frequency and positive word-of-

mouth communication which greatly contribute to business growth. The study emphasized 

the importance of businesses focusing on customer satisfaction in order to drive growth. 

Another study by Eklof et al. (2018) examined the relationship between customer satisfaction 

and financial performance. The study found that companies with high levels of customer 

satisfaction tend to have better financial performance and greater returns on investment than 

those with lower levels of customer satisfaction. The study focused on measures of customer 

satisfaction suggested by Ruswanti et al. (2020) namely repurchase intention, Purchase 

frequency and positive word-of-mouth communication. 

 

1.1.2 Factors Affecting Customer Satisfaction  

According to Noor and Ali (2018), customer satisfaction refers to the overall evaluation or 

perception of customers regarding the extent to which a product, service, or experience meets 

or exceeds their expectations and fulfils their needs. It represents the level of contentment, 

happiness, and positive sentiment that customers experience as a result of their interactions 

with a company or organization. To measure customer satisfaction, various operational 

variables such as customer surveys, customer feedback, repeat customers, and customer 

complaints can be used (Alzoubi et al., 2020). These variables are typically derived from 

surveys, questionnaires, or feedback mechanisms. 

Deng et al. (2016) study in China argues that in today's business world, customer satisfaction 

is of utmost importance as the service provider's ability to create a high degree of satisfaction 

is critical for product differentiation and the development of strong customer relationships. 

Soe (2019) carried a study on analysis of factors influencing customer satisfaction and 

customer loyalty at TrueMoney Myanmar. The study found that factors such as price and 

product features positively influence customer satisfaction, whereas factors such as place and 

promotion are not significant factors. Furthermore, customer satisfaction leads to customer 

loyalty. 



 

 

5 

 

 Xia et al. (2009) conducted research to measure the factors that contribute to tourist 

satisfaction when visiting Guilin, China. The study found that tourists' expectations, 

destination image, service quality, and perceived value are all significant factors that 

contribute to their overall satisfaction. Additionally, the study revealed that perceived 

customer satisfaction has a positive effect on loyalty, while having a negative effect on tourist 

complaints. In their study conducted in Pakistan, Imran and Abbas (2018) investigated the 

impact of pricing on customer satisfaction in the airline industry. The study revealed that 

pricing is a significant factor that affects customer satisfaction, and airlines should consider 

its impact while setting prices. Several studies have shown that customers’ perceptions of 

price fairness significantly influence their satisfaction (Hride et al., 2021; Bernarto & 

Purwanto, 2022). 

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1985) study in the United States viewed service quality as 

“the degree and direction of discrepancy between customers’ expectations and perceptions of 

service delivery”. In their study, they identified five dimensions of service quality: tangibles, 

reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Other studies have also supported the 

importance of service quality in determining customer satisfaction (Ali et al., 2021; Mutinda, 

2020). Researchers have identified that product quality is an important predictor of customer 

satisfaction and repurchase intentions (Naini et al., 2022). 

Shamim and Zaman (2018) studied the impact of employee behaviour on customer 

satisfaction in the fast-food industry in India. The study found that employee behaviour as a 

factor significantly influenced customer satisfaction and that training employees to improve 

their behaviour could lead to higher customer satisfaction. Brand image, or the overall 

perception that customers have of a brand, has also been identified as a critical factor that can 

affect customer satisfaction. 

In previous studies, the factors influencing customer satisfaction were often limited to aspects 

such as product quality, price, convenience, and employee behaviour. Recognizing the need 

to explore a broader range of variables, the present research draws inspiration from the study 

conducted by Leelakulthanit and Hongcharu (2011). Their investigation delved into the 

impact of factors beyond the traditional ones, including functional value, promotional value, 

innovative value, and emotional value, on customer satisfaction. Their study highlighted that 

these four factors had a huge impact on customer satisfaction. Promotional value refers to the 

perceived worth or benefit that a marketing campaign has for the consumer or target 



 

 

6 

 

audience. It can be in the form of a discount, a gift with purchase, or other incentive to make 

a purchase or take a specific action. Functional value refers to the usefulness or utility that a 

product or service provides to the consumer. Innovative value refers to the degree to which a 

product or service is perceived as being new, original, and different from other products or 

services in the market. Emotional value refers to the perceived worth or benefit that a product 

or service has in terms of the emotions it evokes in the consumer. Essentially, delivering 

customer values is a key means for companies to satisfy customer needs.  

 

Recognizing that delivering customer value is essential for satisfying their needs, the current 

study specifically investigates the impact of functional value, promotional value, innovative 

value, and emotional value on customer satisfaction in the context of tour and travel agencies. 

As high-end tour agencies cater to customers who are willing to pay a premium for services, 

understanding and effectively delivering these value dimensions becomes critical in ensuring 

customer satisfaction. By exploring these factors, the study aims to shed light on the drivers 

of customer satisfaction within the tour and travel industry and contribute valuable insights to 

the field. 

1.1.3 Tour and Travel Agencies in Kenya 

Kenya is famous worldwide for its exceptional safari excursions. Through these vacation 

packages, travellers are able to enjoy Kenya’s breath-taking terrain and, most significantly, 

its abundant wildlife. Utilising travel agents and tour operators is one of the finest methods to 

enjoy the trip. Tour operators serve as intermediaries in the tourist allocation system, linking 

items and customers (Gakii et al., 2022). Tour companies handle all aspects of travel, 

including the purchase of plane tickets, assistance arrangements, and transport to and from 

the airport and itinerary.  

Tour and travel agencies in Kenya operate within a dynamic environment shaped by various 

factors. The operating environment of tour and travel agencies in Kenya is influenced by the 

tourism sector, government policies, competition, technology, infrastructure, safety and 

security, and environmental sustainability (KATO, 2022). For instance, competition is intense 

in the tour and travel industry in Kenya. These agencies need to differentiate themselves 

through unique offerings, quality services, and competitive pricing to attract customers and 

stay ahead of their competitors. Individual documentation of the barnstorm operators The 

Kenya Association of Tour Operators (KATO) is the parent organisation of the Kenya 

Association of Travel Agencies (KATA).  KATO is the top tourist tours association in 



 

 

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Kenya, representing the interests of more than 300 tour operators (KATO, 2022). KATO 

seeks to simplify and improve the business environment of the travel sector in Kenya by 

promoting the goods of travel agents to the general public, defending the rights of travel 

agent organisations, and assisting businesses to optimize their accomplishments and profits. 

There are different classes of tour operators according to KATO ranging from A to E, with 

class A having 37 members offering the best of services hence higher customer satisfaction 

but charge a premium. On the other hand, class E are relatively cheaper tour operators but 

their service is relatively average. In terms of competition, Class A attract a niche clientele, 

hence the competition is among the Class A tour operators. These premium tours are 

designed to offer high-quality experiences, personalized services, and luxurious 

accommodations to their clients. Some of the benefits of premium tours may include private 

transportation, expert guides, and gourmet meals.  

The selection of Class A tour operators over others can be attributed to various factors, 

contributing to their prominence and preference. Class A operators are renowned for their 

exceptional services, offering high-quality experiences, personalized attention, and luxurious 

accommodations to their clients (KATO, 2022). These operators specialize in designing 

premium tours that cater to the expectations of discerning travellers who actively seek 

outstanding service and distinctive experiences. Consequently, customers who opt for Class 

A operators are more likely to experience heightened levels of satisfaction compared to those 

choosing other classes. Another significant factor is that Class A tour operators attract a 

specific niche clientele who are willing to pay a premium for top-notch services and 

exclusive experiences. This particular customer segment often possesses elevated 

expectations, actively pursuing exceptional quality, personalized care, and indulgence. By 

concentrating on this niche market, Class A operators can tailor their services precisely to 

fulfil the unique needs and desires of their clientele, thereby enhancing customer satisfaction 

significantly. Furthermore, Class A tour operators often go the extra mile by providing 

additional benefits and amenities that contribute to an elevated customer experience. These 

supplementary advantages may encompass private transportation, expert guides, gourmet 

meals, and exclusive access to locations or activities. Through offering such premium 

benefits, Class A operators strive to surpass customer expectations and create memorable, 

highly satisfactory experiences for their clients. 



 

 

8 

 

This study focused on four Class A tour operators namely; Abercrombie & Kent Ltd, African 

Horizons Travel Safaris, Bush and Beyond Ltd, and Pollmans Tours Safaris Ltd-Msa. The 

choice of these four tour companies can be attributed to several reasons. On top of their 

excellent services and a strong market presence and brand recognition, the choice to carry-out 

research on these four was influenced by practical considerations such as availability, 

accessibility, and cooperation from the agencies. 

Given the increasing level of competition both globally and locally, it is critical for tour and 

travel companies to strive to deliver customers satisfaction to ensure their survival. Therefore, 

the study aimed to establish factors influencing customers’ satisfaction with the services 

offered by the high-end tour and travel agencies in Nairobi county.  

1.2. Problem Statement 

Customer satisfaction is a critical aspect for firms operating in the service industry, where 

customer needs and expectations are continually evolving (Rosak-Szyrocka et al., 2022). The 

selection of functional value, promotional value, innovative value, and emotional value as 

independent variables is based on previous research and the unique context of high-end tours 

and travel agencies.  Nsobiari and Anyadighibe (2014) study in Nigeria argues that the ability 

to satisfy consumers remains one of the greatest tasks for any firm to achieve as customer 

needs and expectation are changing at all time. Studies like Nsobiari and Anyadighibe (2014) 

highlight the importance of understanding customer expectations and market characteristics. 

Promotional value, which encompasses appealing advertisements and incentives, can 

significantly influence customer satisfaction. It aligns with the notion that effective 

promotional strategies positively impact customers' perception of a company's goods or 

services. Understanding customers’ expectation is crucial in-service industry such as tours 

and travel industries and therefore managers should endeavour to carry out initial market 

surveys to find out what the market needs which should also give an insight on the market 

characteristics (Kabuitu & Ngige, 2016).  

According to Adil and Sadiq (2019), certainty, tangibility, and empathy are the factors of 

efficient customer satisfaction in India. These elements are crucial for evaluating the quality 

of customer service in any hotel environment. In addition, it has been shown that consumers 

appropriately evaluate the services they get based on their promptness, transaction 

correctness, and security features (Fida et al., 2020). Previous studies, such as Adil and Sadiq 

(2019), have emphasized the significance of functional factors, such as certainty, tangibility, 



 

 

9 

 

and empathy, in achieving customer satisfaction. These elements are critical for evaluating 

the quality of customer service, and their inclusion allows for an examination of the tangible 

aspects of the services provided by high-end tour operators. According to Waitiki (2014), the 

management of organizations in Kenya should seek to know the level at which the customers 

are satisfied with their services and the kind of service quality levels their customers would 

like in order to offer the exactly what would be taken positively 

Hashem and Ali’s (2019) studies the link between service quality and customer satisfaction in 

Jordan emphasises the significance of the five service quality characteristics. Therefore, the 

research suggests that customer happiness is easily achieved via the continual delivery of 

superior services. Emotional value, as emphasized by studies like Hashem and Ali (2019), 

plays a crucial role in customer satisfaction. This variable captures the emotional connection 

and positive experiences that customers derive from high-end tours and travel services. 

Emotional value encompasses factors such as pleasure, enjoyment, and the overall affective 

response evoked by the services provided. Ali et al. (2021) extended the significance of 

customer happiness based on service quality. Atilgan et al. (2003) focused on the five aspects 

of service quality in the tourism sector in Ankara, Turkey. Based on the survey, the study 

determined that the five-dimensional factors had a significant impact on consumer 

satisfaction. Moreover, the research highlighted the importance of dependability for customer 

satisfaction in contrast to the tangibility factor. Despite earlier research indicating a strong 

correlation between customer satisfaction and service quality, there remains a gap in the 

literature regarding the specific elements of service quality and their association with 

customer satisfaction. Mutinda (2020) focused on the effect of service quality on customer 

satisfaction among hotels in Nairobi, Kenya. The study found a positive correlation between 

good service quality and customer satisfaction. 

 

Forozia et. al., (2013) study on customer satisfaction in the hospitality industry within the 

Middle East argues that customer satisfaction is the determinant and inevitable secret of 

success and therefore organizations are not able to compete with other competitors without 

fulfilling the satisfaction of their guests. Therefore, it is in the rapid growth of new industries 

both local brands and international brands, there has been creation of a big gap in the tour and 

travel industry as there is an emergence of great competition within the market. The 

emergence of competition has created a zest in creating sustainable loyal clientele which 

highly relies on the fact that customer satisfaction element be addressed in the hotels. 



 

 

10 

 

Customer satisfaction and service quality are the key element of attaining competitive 

advantage tour and travel industry which will attract customers and maintain them and as a 

result, there is great demand for customer satisfaction so as to achieve repeat purchase and 

attract new customers (Forozia et. al., 2013). The rapid growth of the tour and travel industry, 

coupled with increasing competition, necessitates the consideration of innovative value. 

Innovative value refers to the introduction of unique and novel experiences, services, or 

features that differentiate high-end tour operators from their competitors. This factor has been 

associated with increased customer satisfaction and loyalty. 

Despite these studies being carried out on factors affecting customer satisfaction, there are 

limited studies specifically focusing on high-end tours and travel agencies within the Kenyan 

context. Besides, majority of the studies seems to have focused on the developed context 

other than a developing country like Kenya. This research gap highlights the need for a 

focused investigation into the customer satisfaction drivers within the high-end tourism sector 

in Kenya. By addressing this gap, the study aims to provide valuable insights and contribute 

to the knowledge base surrounding customer satisfaction in a developing country context.  

 

The primary focus of this research revolves around examining the relationship between 

customer satisfaction and service provision in high-end Tours and Travel Agencies operating 

within Nairobi. The study aims to bridge the existing knowledge gap by investigating the 

factors that influence customer satisfaction specifically in the context of Tours and Travel 

Agencies in Nairobi, with a particular emphasis on the quality of services rendered. Through 

this investigation, the research endeavours to pinpoint the specific areas that necessitate 

improvement in order to enhance customer satisfaction and optimize service delivery within 

the high-end tours and travel industry in Nairobi. 

1.3 Research Objectives 

The main objective of this study was to establish the factors influencing customer satisfaction 

with services offered by high-end tours and travel agencies in Nairobi County. 

1.3.1 Specific Objectives 

i. To determine the extent to which promotional value influences customer satisfaction 

among high-end tour and travel agencies in Nairobi County. 

ii. To determine the extent to which functional value influences customer satisfaction 

among high-end tour and travel agencies in Nairobi County. 



 

 

11 

 

iii. To determine the extent to which emotional value influences customer satisfaction 

among high-end tour and travel agencies in Nairobi County. 

iv. To determine the extent to which innovative value influences customer satisfaction 

among high-end tour and travel agencies in Nairobi County. 

1.4 Research Questions 

i. To what extent does promotional value influence customer satisfaction among high-

end tour and travel agencies in Nairobi County? 

ii. To what extent does functional value influence customer satisfaction among high-end 

tour and travel agencies in Nairobi County? 

iii.  To what extent does emotional value influence customer satisfaction among high-end 

tour and travel agencies in Nairobi County? 

iv. To what extent does innovative value influence customer satisfaction among high-end 

tour and travel agencies in Nairobi County? 

1.5 Scope of the Study 

The conceptual scope of this study is to investigate the factors that contribute to customer 

satisfaction among high-end tours and travel agencies in Nairobi County, namely 

Abercrombie & Kent Ltd, African Horizons Travel Safaris, Bush and Beyond Ltd, and 

Pollmans Tours Safaris Ltd-Msa. The study aimed to identify and analyse the key elements 

that influence customers' satisfaction with the services provided by these travel agencies in 

Nairobi County. The methodological scope of the study involves employing quantitative 

methods, where data was collected through structured questionnaires administered to a 

sample of customers of the aforementioned agencies. This will allow for the collection of 

numerical data that can be analysed statistically to identify patterns and correlations related to 

customer satisfaction. The geographical scope of this study was limited to high-end tours and 

travel agencies operating within Nairobi, Kenya. The time scope for this study spans from 

September 2022 to May 2023, during which data collection, analysis, and report writing will 

take place. This timeframe allows for a comprehensive examination of the factors influencing 

customer satisfaction within the specified high-end tours and travel agencies in Nairobi 

County. 

1.6 Significance of the Study 

This research holds significant implications for various stakeholders, including policy 

makers, industry players, and the advancement of theoretical knowledge. Specifically, it 



 

 

12 

 

holds many benefits to different stakeholders, including tours and travel agencies, 

government, academic scholars, and other relevant stakeholders. 

 

In terms of policy, the findings of this research will provide policymakers with valuable 

insights based on empirical evidence regarding the Tours and Travel industry in Nairobi. By 

comprehending the factors that exert influence on customer satisfaction and service 

provision, policymakers can formulate well-informed policies and regulations that foster a 

conducive business environment. These policies have the potential to enhance the quality of 

services offered by Tours and Travel Agencies, elevate customer experiences, and contribute 

to the overall growth and advancement of the tourism sector. 

 

In terms of industry, the findings of this study will also directly benefit industry players, 

specifically Tours and Travel Agencies operating in Nairobi. By gaining a profound 

understanding of the factors that significantly influence customer satisfaction, industry 

players can make well-informed decisions to enhance their service provision. The research 

will provide invaluable insights into customer preferences, expectations, and experiences, 

empowering industry players to customize their offerings in alignment with the evolving 

needs of customers. This knowledge will enable them to stand out in a competitive market, 

foster customer loyalty, and drive business growth. Moreover, the study can serve as a 

benchmark for industry standards, encouraging a continuous pursuit of improvement in 

service quality and customer satisfaction. 

 

In terms of theory, this study makes a significant theoretical contribution to the existing body 

of knowledge in the field of customer satisfaction and service provision within the Tours and 

Travel industry. By specifically investigating the factors of promotional value, functional 

value, emotional value, and innovative value, the research enhances our understanding of 

how these variables exert influence on customer satisfaction. The findings have the potential 

to contribute to the development and refinement of theoretical frameworks and models that 

elucidate customer behaviour and satisfaction in the context of tourism and hospitality. 

Scholars and researchers can leverage these findings as a foundation for further exploration 

into the intricacies of customer satisfaction and service provision, ultimately advancing the 

theoretical knowledge in the field. 

 



 

 

13 

 

The study will also be useful to several beneficiaries. Tours and travel agencies will benefit 

from this study by gaining valuable insights into the factors that influence customer 

satisfaction in the high-end tours and travel industry. The study's findings will help agencies 

understand the customers' perception of their services and identify areas that need 

improvement. By improving their services, high-end tour agencies can enhance customer 

satisfaction and increase customer retention, leading to increased revenue and profitability. 

The study results will be decimated to all relevant stakeholders by sharing the print results. 

However, upon request, I can hold workshops to further explain and clarify any information. 

 

The government will benefit from this study by gaining insights into the tours and travel 

industry's performance in Nairobi County. The government can use the study's findings to 

develop policies and regulations that can improve the industry's performance and promote 

tourism in the county. 

 

Academic scholars will benefit from this study by adding to the existing knowledge on 

customer satisfaction in the tours and travel industry. The study's findings can contribute to 

future research and improve the understanding of the factors that influence customer 

satisfaction in the high-end tours and travel industry. 

 

Other relevant stakeholders such as investors, customers, and industry associations will also 

benefit from this study. Investors can use the study's findings to make informed decisions 

about investing in high-end tour agencies in Nairobi County. Customers can benefit from 

improved services, leading to enhanced satisfaction and a better travel experience. Industry 

associations can use the study's findings to develop programs and initiatives that can improve 

the quality of services provided by high-end tour agencies in Nairobi County. 

1.7 Chapter Summary 

This chapter gives an overview of research on the factors affecting customer satisfaction in 

the tours and travel industry in Nairobi, Kenya. It highlights the significance of the study and 

introduces the concept of customer satisfaction and the tours and travel agencies in Nairobi. 

The problem statement as well as research objectives. The scope of the study is outlined, and 

the chapter concludes by highlighting the benefits that the research will provide to 

stakeholders in the tours and travel industry. 

 



 

 

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CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.1 Introduction 

This chapter examines the theoretical foundation of the study, along with a section on 

customer satisfaction. It also includes an empirical review, research gap, and summary of 

literature. It synthesizes past literature in relation to the research objectives and discusses 

several key empirical studies and other supporting research on the topic being studied. 

2.2 Theoretical Framework 

The theoretical framework for the research study on the factors influencing customer 

satisfaction with services offered by tours and travel agencies in Nairobi, Kenya could be 

based on two theories: The Value-Percept Disparity theory and the Complex Adaptive theory. 

 

2.2.1 The Value-Percept Disparity Theory 

The Value-Percept Disparity Theory is a psychological concept that can be applied to the 

concept of customer satisfaction and how it relates to on service quality and purchase 

intention (Mtotywa & Kekana, 2023). The Value-Percept Disparity theory was proposed by J. 

Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham in their 1976 paper "Motivation Through the Design of 

Work: Test of a Theory." Hackman and Oldham were organizational psychologists who 

conducted research on how to motivate employees in the workplace.  Essentially, this theory 

suggests that people may have different perceptions of an object or event, and that these 

perceptions can be at odds with its objective value. In the context of customer satisfaction, 

this theory can help explain why different customers may have varying levels of satisfaction 

with the same product or service (Wrang, 2022). For instance, one customer may attach a 

high level of value to a particular feature of a product, while another customer may not 

consider that feature to be important. This can lead to different levels of satisfaction among 

customers, even if the product or service itself is of high quality.  



 

 

15 

 

 

When applied to the independent variables of promotional value, functional value, emotional 

value and innovative value, the theory suggests that customer satisfaction with tours and 

travel agencies in Nairobi will be higher when these values are perceived to be greater than 

the customer's expectations. For example, if a customer expects a tour agency to provide 

basic transportation and accommodation, but the agency provides additional services such as 

a guided tour or a spa package, the customer may perceive a higher promotional value and be 

more satisfied. Similarly, if a customer expects a tour agency to provide basic customer 

service, but the agency goes above and beyond with exceptional customer service, the 

customer may perceive a higher emotional value and be more satisfied. 

 

The theory also suggests that if a customer perceives the value of a product or service to be 

less than what they had expected, they will be less satisfied (Asha et al., 2023). For example, 

if a customer expects a tour agency to provide a luxury experience, but the agency fails to 

deliver on this expectation, the customer may perceive a lower functional value and be less 

satisfied. Additionally, the value-percept disparity theory can help businesses understand why 

customers may be dissatisfied with their products or services, even if the business believes 

that they are providing high-quality products or services at a fair price (Zhang et al., 2019). 

By understanding that customers may have different perceptions of value, businesses can take 

steps to align their products or services with their customers' expectations, leading to 

increased satisfaction. One of the key implications of this theory for customer satisfaction is 

that businesses need to be aware of the potential for discrepancies between their own 

perceptions of value and their customers' perceptions of value (Bing, et al., 2018). This 

means that businesses need to be attuned to the specific needs and preferences of their 

customers, and strive to provide products or services that align with those needs and 

preferences. This may require businesses to gather feedback from their customers, and to be 

responsive to that feedback in order to continuously improve their offerings. 

 

In the context of this study, the Value-Percept Disparity Theory underpins the examination of 

customer satisfaction in relation to promotional value, functional value, emotional value, and 

innovative value. By assessing the gaps between customers' expectations and their actual 

experiences regarding these value dimensions, the research aims to identify the factors that 

contribute to customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The theory provides a conceptual 

framework for understanding how variations in these value dimensions can impact the overall 



 

 

16 

 

satisfaction levels of customers (Zhang et al., 2019). Moreover, the Value-Percept Disparity 

Theory guides the interpretation of the study findings by emphasizing the importance of 

aligning customers' expectations with the actual service provision. It underscores the 

significance of understanding customers' value perceptions and managing those perceptions 

to enhance customer satisfaction. By incorporating this theory into the study, the research 

gains a theoretical basis for analysing the relationship between customer satisfaction and the 

value dimensions examined, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of customer 

satisfaction within the Tours and Travel industry. 

 

2.2.2 Complex Adaptive Theory 

Complex adaptive theory, proposed by John Holland, highlights that complex systems such 

as biological organisms, economies, and societies, are best understood as collections of 

interconnected agents that adapt and evolve over time (Roundy et al., 2018). Holland seminal 

book, "Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems," first published in 1975 and provides a 

foundational framework for this theory. Holland's work has since had a major impact on the 

fields of complex systems, artificial intelligence, and evolutionary computation. According to 

this theory, the most productive state for a system is one in which there is maximum variety 

and creativity. Holland argued that complex systems are made up of agents that interact with 

each other, and that the behaviour of the system emerges from these interactions. He also 

proposed that the diversity of the agents in the system is a key factor in its adaptability and 

resilience. When a system has a wide variety of agents with different attributes, it is better 

able to respond to changing conditions and adapt to new environments (Shi et al., 2021).  

Complex adaptive systems are able to constantly adapt and evolve in response to changing 

conditions, which allows them to maintain a high level of flexibility and adaptability (Van 

Nuland et al., 2020). This ability to adapt and evolve is what allows complex adaptive 

systems to be productive and successful. Based on these properties it could be argued that 

complex adaptive systems are all around us. This theory is based on the idea that complex 

systems are made up of many different components that interact with each other in ways that 

can be difficult to predict (Akgün et al., 2020). In the context of customer satisfaction, 

complex adaptive theory can help explain why customers may have different levels of 

satisfaction with the same product or service. This is because customer satisfaction is a 

complex phenomenon that is influenced by many different factors, including the quality of 



 

 

17 

 

the product or service, the customer's expectations, and their individual experiences and 

biases. 

When applied to the dependent variable of customer satisfaction with services offered by 

tours and travel agencies in Nairobi, the theory suggests that customer satisfaction is the 

outcome of a complex system of interactions between various factors. According to the CAS 

theory, customer satisfaction is not determined by a single factor, but by a combination of 

various factors such as the quality of service, price, convenience, safety, and responsiveness 

of the tour and travel agency (Ali, Gardi, et al., 2021). The interactions between these factors 

are dynamic and can change over time, leading to different levels of customer satisfaction. 

Furthermore, the CAS theory emphasizes that customer satisfaction is a self-organizing 

process, meaning that it is influenced by the actions and feedback of customers themselves. 

This means that customers are not passive recipients of service but active participants in 

shaping their satisfaction. For example, customers who are more satisfied with the service 

offered by the tour and travel agency may provide positive feedback, which in turn can 

influence the behaviour of the tour and travel agency, leading to better service and higher 

customer satisfaction. 

 

Complex adaptive theory can also help explain why customer satisfaction may change over 

time (Van Nuland et al., 2020). This is because the factors that influence customer 

satisfaction are constantly changing, and the interactions between these factors can lead to 

complex patterns of behaviour. For example, a change in the quality of a product or service, 

or a change in customer expectations, can have cascading effects on customer satisfaction. 

One of the key implications of complex adaptive theory for customer satisfaction is that 

businesses need to be aware of the complex and dynamic nature of customer satisfaction 

(Wang & Liu, 2021). This means that businesses need to be attuned to the many different 

factors that can influence customer satisfaction, and strive to continuously improve their 

products or services in order to meet the changing needs and expectations of their customers. 

 

In the context of this study, the Complex Adaptive Theory underpins the examination of 

customer satisfaction and service provision in Tours and Travel Agencies operating in 

Nairobi. It recognizes that these agencies are dynamic entities influenced by multiple factors, 

including customer preferences, market conditions, and competitive forces. The theory 

acknowledges that the success of these agencies relies on their ability to adapt and respond to 



 

 

18 

 

changes in the environment while maintaining a balance between stability and flexibility. By 

adopting the lens of Complex Adaptive Theory, the research explores how Tours and Travel 

Agencies can adapt their service provision to meet customer expectations and enhance 

customer satisfaction. It recognizes that customer preferences and expectations are constantly 

evolving, and agencies must be responsive and adaptive to these changes. The theory 

highlights the importance of continuous learning, innovation, and flexibility in delivering 

high-quality services that align with customer needs. 

2.3 Empirical Review 

This section conducts an empirical review of the existing literature on customer satisfaction 

and the factors that influence it, specifically focusing on promotional value, functional value, 

emotional value, and innovative value.  

 

2.3.1. Promotional Value and Customer Satisfaction 

The concept of promotional value refers to the extent to which a product or service is 

marketed or advertised in a way that creates a positive impression on the customer (Rifdah et 

al., 2019). A company can use attractive and engaging advertising to promote its products or 

services, which can lead to a positive impression of the company and its offerings (Adil & 

Sadiq, 2019). Conversely, unappealing or unengaging advertising can result in lower levels of 

customer satisfaction. 

Kashyap and Bojanic (2019) carried out a study in Eastern Europe using online surveys from 

the popular travel website TripAdvisor to investigate the relationships between travellers’ 

opinion of value, quality and price, and their influence on travellers’ ratings of similar hotels 

and revisit intentions in two segments: business and leisure travellers. The findings implied 

that value plays a pivotal role in a travellers’ decision planning. Most interesting findings are 

resulted from the regression of the quality variables, price value, and overall rating on revisit 

intention. For the business section, only overall value and comparative rating were 

significantly associated. On the contrary, for the leisure sector, while none of the quality 

variables were significant, the perceived price, overall value, and comparative rating were all 

considerably related with the revisit intentions. 

Langga et al. (2020) carried a study in Indonesia to investigate the influence of intensive 

distribution and sales promotion towards customer-based brand equity, repurchase intention, 

and WOM (word-of-mouth). They found something important is as follows. First, incentives 



 

 

19 

 

distribution had a significant and positive influence on brand equity and repurchase intention. 

Secondly, sales promotion had a substantial and positive impact on WOM, but it did not 

influence brand equity. Last but not least, brand equity had a significant influence on 

repurchase intention and WOM. 

Thakur and Sing (2012) examined the relationship between brand satisfaction and loyalty 

among those selected for study in India central brand Cosmetics Company was study. The 

study examines five benefits of branding, improve. Functional, Social, Symbolic and 

Appearance data from 150 men and 150 women clients experience these brands was selected 

products regularly. The results showed significant results 3 and 2 insignificant results. The 

logo can build customer satisfaction. 

A study carried by Lee and Wong's (2021) in South Korea s indicated that customer value in 

the ecosystem has a great impact on word of mouth, and positive word of mouth normally 

signifies loyalty. Joo and Marakhimov (2018) also claimed that when customers participate 

as the primary members of the business ecosystem they are able to interact and impact other 

members within the business ecosystem through word of mouth and boycotts. Word of mouth 

communication happens within the business ecosystem where customers do 

recommendations to each other and as well as conduct discussions with the different firms in 

the ecosystem about their experiences with the product/services (Joo & Marakhimov, 2018). 

This shows that customers have to trust the firms in the ecosystem in order to spread positive 

word of mouth and recommend the firms to other customers. Moreover, favourable word of 

mouth strengthens the business ecosystem by encouraging new customers/members to 

participate and also promotes the revenues, reputation, and customer loyalty of the main 

company and other firms within the ecosystem (Joo & Marakhimov, 2018). 

The impact of promotional value on customer satisfaction is significant, both globally and in 

Kenya. Dutta et al. (2017) suggest that promotional offers such as discounts, coupons, or 

special deals can increase customer satisfaction as they make a product or service feel more 

valuable or affordable. However, it is crucial to note that promotional value is not the sole 

factor that influences customer satisfaction (Bowie & Chang, 2005). Other factors such as 

service quality, level of customer service, and purchasing convenience also play a role in 

customer satisfaction, both globally and in Kenya (Masrurul, 2019). 



 

 

20 

 

In Kenya, the overall value for money may be a crucial factor in customer satisfaction. Chege 

(2021) indicates that Kenyan customers may be particularly sensitive to the cost of products 

or services and may be more likely to be satisfied if they feel they are getting good value for 

their money. Companies that offer promotions or discounts that make their products or 

services more affordable may, therefore, see higher levels of customer satisfaction in Kenya. 

2.3.2 Functional Value and Customer Satisfaction 

Functional value refers to the extent to which a product or service meets the customer's 

functional needs and requirements (Ahn & Back, 2019). Customers may be highly satisfied 

with a new product if it has all the features and functionality that they are looking for (Iyer et 

al., 2018). Conversely, if the product has limitations or problems that prevent it from meeting 

the customer's needs, the customer may be less satisfied with their purchase. 

Osman and Sentosa (2013) conducted a research in order to demonstrate the relationship of 

service quality, satisfaction and trust on loyalty in the rural tourism market in Malaysia. Their 

research found that service quality has a positive relationship and significant on customer 

loyalty. Wachyuni (2019)) suggested that direct effect of the quality of service to the 

intention of buying behaviour is significant; the indirect effect of satisfaction with the tourist 

satisfaction is a strong driving for repurchase intention in the context of service quality. Then 

Malik et al. (2018) who investigate on the telecommunications sector in Pakistan found 

results that service quality has a positive effect on satisfaction. An understanding of the 

various dimensions that influence loyalty will help managers to develop appropriate program 

of action in providing better service and build customer loyalty. 

A study carried out by Haghkhah et al. (2016) in Malaysia found that quality of destinations 

as measured by accessibility, accommodation and place had a significant relationship on 

tourist satisfaction and directly influence their intention to come back on tourist destinations. 

Several studies show that service quality of destination give effect to the satisfaction of 

tourists (Ali & Ahliyya, 2018), and the effect on behavioural intentions (Gallarza et al., 

2018). Research in managing service quality, conducted by Masrurul (2019) found that the 

service quality had direct influence on the satisfaction and also directly affects behavioural 

intentions, then service quality would had higher value on behavioural intention through 

tourist satisfaction. This indicates that service quality perceived higher customers will have 

an impact on the intentions of customer behaviour when customers get satisfaction with the 

service of the company. Some research also suggests that service quality of the hotel will 



 

 

21 

 

have an impact on satisfaction (Bi et al., 2020; Noor & Ali, 2018) and the intentions of 

customer behaviour (Lambaga et al., 2023) and service quality had indirect influence on 

behavioural intentions through tourist satisfaction (Choy & Kamoche, 2021). 

Kyoshaba (2021) conducted a research using the ECSI to measure the antecedents of 

customer satisfaction and its impact on loyalty in Uganda. The results of confirmatory factor 

analysis showed that brand image is a determinant of satisfaction while the customer 

perceived value indicates the level of brand loyalty. Furthermore, Anwar and Gulzar (2011) 

in his research indicate that there is a positive influence between perceived value to customer 

satisfaction, word of mouth communication and repurchase intention. Thus, customer 

perceived value as an important step for a company to gain a competitive advantage, and has 

an important role in enhancing the company competitiveness as well as a strong predictor in 

explaining satisfaction and loyalty. 

Research conducted by Fang et al. (2020) in measuring antecedents of tourist’s satisfaction 

visiting China found that the expectations of tourists, destination image, service quality and 

perceived value are all factors that make up the tourist satisfaction. Further explained that the 

perceived customer satisfaction has a positive effect on loyalty while negatively effect on 

tourist complaints. Research by Forozia, (2013) in a three-star hotel in Malaysia found that 

guest satisfaction is directly influenced by service quality, perceived value and expectations 

of guests, and service quality had the highest influence on satisfaction. This study proves that 

guest satisfaction is the main factor driving the success of the hospitality business. From 

these two studies, it appears that there is still debate about the factors that determine tourist 

satisfaction. Service quality contributes in improving the company image (Nazariah et al., 

2022), increasing the perceived value (Ahn & Back, 2019) increase tourist satisfaction 

(Hwang & Lee, 2018)  and loyalty is the result of the satisfaction felt by the consumer (Hride 

et al., 2021). Therefore, customer satisfaction is the main concern for the managers of 

businesses in the tourism and hospitality by delivering quality products and the best service, 

which is expected to increase consumer loyalty to the company in the future. 

In the Kenyan context, functional value is a crucial factor in customer satisfaction as 

customers in Kenya place a high value on products or services that effectively meet their 

needs and solve their problems (Mohammed et al., 2017). Companies that consistently 

deliver functional value to their customers may, therefore, see higher levels of satisfaction in 

Kenya. 



 

 

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Travel agencies that provide high levels of functional value are more likely to have satisfied 

customers, which can lead to repeat business and positive word-of-mouth marketing 

(Bunghez, 2020). Gaurav et al. (2018) suggest that it is necessary for tours and travel 

agencies to provide high levels of functional value to ensure customer satisfaction. This can 

be achieved by offering quality accommodations, efficient transportation, good customer 

service, and well-planned itineraries. 

By providing high levels of functional value, travel agencies can increase customer 

satisfaction and ultimately drive their business. However, low levels of functional value can 

lead to dissatisfied customers, negative word-of-mouth marketing, and lost business for travel 

agencies (Gaurav et al., 2018). 

2.3.3 Emotional Value and Customer Satisfaction 

According to Song and Lim (2022), emotional value pertains to the ability of a product or 

service to elicit positive emotions from the customer, such as happiness, excitement, or 

satisfaction. Customers who have positive experiences with a product or service are likely to 

have higher satisfaction levels compared to those who have negative experiences. In the 

tourism or retail industry, creating emotional value is particularly important in creating 

memorable experiences for customers (Kim et al., 2020). Companies that are able to deliver 

emotional value to their customers in addition to functional value may be more likely to see 

high levels of satisfaction (Fang et al., 2020). 

Sabet (2022) evaluated the influence of personality traits on satisfaction in an imaginary bar 

and hotel setting in Sydney, Australia shows that extraversion significantly and directly leads 

to pleasure which has a direct effect on satisfaction. Akter, D’Ambra and Hani (2013), 

confirms that personality traits have both negative and positive influence on customer 

satisfaction and loyalty. The investigation found customers who are sociable and have 

emotional stability, placing less emphasis on quality service leading to satisfaction than less 

sociable and emotionally unstable persons 

Lambaga et al. (2023) posit that attitude and behaviour of consumers towards a firm's 

products or service can be linked to their personality traits. Lin, furthermore, explained the 

trait theory as people having the same set of traits show it differently, differentiating one 

individual from to another. A combination of the various traits is due to the individual 

differences, which makes an individual unique. Park et al. (2018) assert that personality 



 

 

23 

 

allude to psychological qualities that contributes to a person undergoing a distinctive pattern 

of feeling, thinking, and behaviour. 

As highlighted by Dutta et al. (2017), customers are searching for experiences that offer 

memorable and meaningful moments. By providing products with an emotional touch, 

businesses in the tours industry can create more satisfied customers who are more likely to 

return and recommend their services to others (Song & Lim, 2022).  

Additionally, creating emotionally valuable products can also foster loyalty from existing 

customers by establishing an enjoyable connection between them and the business they are 

interacting with - this could lead to repeat purchases or longer-term relationships (Bing, et al., 

2018). Ultimately, understanding how emotion influences customer satisfaction in the tours 

industry is essential for any business seeking success in this field today. 

2.3.4 Innovative Value and Customer Satisfaction 

Innovative value is an important factor in determining customer satisfaction, as it refers to 

how well a product or service meets the customer's needs in a new or creative way (Díaz & 

Duque, 2021). Innovative products that solve customers' problems in a unique way can lead 

to high levels of satisfaction, while less innovative offerings may result in lower levels of 

satisfaction (Yuniari & Giantari, 2020). However, innovative value is not the only factor that 

can impact customer satisfaction. 

Naini et al. (2022) suggest that different markets may have varying levels of interest in and 

appreciation for innovation, and what is considered innovative to one customer may not be as 

important to another. In the context of Kenya, cultural values and expectations may also play 

a role in how customers perceive innovative value (Choy & Kamoche, 2021). Certain cultural 

values may place a greater emphasis on tradition or the past, while others may be more open 

to new and innovative ideas. As such, companies operating in Kenya should be cognizant of 

these cultural dynamics when striving to deliver innovative value to their customers. 

Díaz and Duque (2021) investigated the service quality in hotels. Their research particularly, 

determined the critical relational attributes in the face-to-face service encounters that were 

most influential in the formation of a service relationship from the business traveller’s 

perspective. Five critical relational attributes were chosen and tested in a high interpersonal 

service context; namely, a hotel reception encounter. The results from multiple regression 



 

 

24 

 

analysis revealed that the hotel guests perceived personalization, social bonding, reliability, 

and familiarization to be the most influential in the relationship formation process in that 

order of significance. What the customers want at all times is ethical service in which their 

needs as vital stakeholders are exceeded if at all possible (Nicolaides, 2016). 

A study conducted by William et. al. (2016) in South Africa explains that customers develop 

a certain set of expectations based on a variety of inputs and consider their previous 

experiences with services in general and with each specific kind of service they have 

encountered. Customers also develop expectations when they hear about services from 

others. If you hear that your friend was delighted with her stay at a particular hotel, you are 

more likely to expect that same level of service if you stay there. Customers also form 

expectations based on service provider’s advertisement and promotions. 

According to Gakii et al. (2022), understanding the importance of innovative value and its 

relationship to customer satisfaction is critical for businesses looking to succeed in the 

Kenyan market. By introducing new and creative solutions that address customers' needs in a 

unique way, companies may be able to improve customer satisfaction levels and gain a 

competitive advantage. 

2.4 Research Gap 

The existing literature reveals several notable research gaps that are both contextual and 

conceptual in nature, indicating the need for further investigation. One such research gap can 

be observed in the study conducted by Gaurav et al. (2018) on factors influencing customer 

satisfaction at Tours and Travel Agencies in India. Although this study shed light on the 

importance of responsiveness and effective issue resolution in customer satisfaction, it was 

limited to the Indian context. Consequently, there is a clear research gap that necessitates 

conducting a similar study in Kenya to address the challenges specific to the tours and travel 

industry in the country. Moreover, Lambaga et al. (2023) focused primarily on techniques to 

increase customer happiness, trust, fairness perception, and corporate aspects, while 

neglecting a comprehensive exploration of the underlying factors that directly impact 

consumer satisfaction. In addition, studies such as Nguya et al. (2021) conducted in Kenya 

emphasized the significance of tour guides' abilities, performance, and knowledge in 

enhancing visitors' satisfaction with tour guiding services, but failed to incorporate the 

dimensions of promotional value, functional value, emotional value, and innovative value. 

These findings highlight another research gap that needs to be addressed. Hence, this study 



 

 

25 

 

aims to fill these research gaps by examining the specific impact of these variables on 

customer satisfaction. By addressing these gaps, future studies can contribute to the 

development of effective strategies and interventions to enhance consumer satisfaction and 

overall customer experiences in tourism contexts. It is important to note that the studies 

mentioned are from different regions and focus on different factors affecting customer 

satisfaction, thereby underscoring the need for this study to examine the specific dimensions 

of promotional value, functional value, emotional value, and innovative value within the 

Kenyan context. 

 

 

Table 2.1: Summary of Research Gap 

Author Title of study Findings Research Gap How the current 

study addressed 

the gap 

Gaurav et al. 

(2018) 

Factors Influencing 

Customer Satisfaction 

at Tours and Travel 

Agencies in India 

Customers appreciate 

it when the tour and 

travel agency is 

responsive to their 

needs and concerns, 

and is able to address 

any issues that they 

may have in a timely 

and effective manner. 

The study focuses 

only on India, 

which is 

geographically and 

demographically 

different from 

Kenya. 

The study focused 

on factors 

Influencing 

Customer 

Satisfaction at 

Tours and Travel 

Agencies but for 

Nairobi. 

Cheng et al. 

(2016) 

Building customer 

satisfaction with tour 

leaders: the roles of 

customer trust, justice 

perception, and 

cooperation in group 

package tours 

In the tour leader-

customer satisfaction 

connection, consumer 

trust is more 

important. 

Furthermore, 

consumer 

collaboration 

moderates the impacts 

of customer trust and 

fairness perception on 

customer happiness to 

some extent. 

The study only 

focused on ways to 

build customer 

satisfaction, such as 

trust, justice 

perception, and 

corporation, while 

avoiding to include 

the actual factors 

influencing 

customer 

satisfaction. 

The study analyzed 

the factors that 

influence customer 

satisfaction such as 

promotional value, 

functional value, 

emotional value, 

and innovative 

value 

Mohammed 

et al. (2017) 

Relationship Between 

Strategic Planning 

Practices and 

Performance of Tour 

Firms In 

The Tourism Sector 

in Kenya: A Survey 

Of 

Selected Tour Firms 

in Nairobi, Kenya 

When it comes to goal 

planning in tour firms, 

it is essential that tour 

companies create 

reasonable targets. 

When it comes to 

resource 

identification, tour 

companies should 

prioritize providing 

exceptional service 

quality. The study also 

suggests that 

The study only 

focused on strategic 

planning practices 

and not on 

individual factors or 

customer 

satisfaction. 

The study analyzed 

the factors that 

influence customer 

satisfaction 



 

 

26 

 

assessment be an 

ongoing process. 

Lambaga et 

al., (2023) 

 

Consumer Behavior 

Among Domestic 

Tourists: A Case 

Study of Travel 

Agencies in Nairobi, 

Kenya. 

Tourism consumer 

buying behaviors are 

the activities, 

attitudes, and 

decisions involved in 

selecting, purchasing, 

and consuming any 

tourist products or 

services, as well as 

their post-purchase 

emotions. 

The study only 

looked at 

techniques to 

increase customer 

happiness, such as 

trust, fairness 

perception, and 

corporate, and 

avoided looking at 

the real issues that 

influence consumer 

satisfaction. 

The study analyzed 

the factors that 

influence customer 

satisfaction such as 

promotional value, 

functional value, 

emotional value, 

and innovative 

value 

Nguya et al. 

(2021) 

Influence of Tour 

Guide Service 

Quality on Customer 

Satisfaction in Narok 

County, Kenya 

The findings showed 

that tour guide service 

quality can have a 

positive impact on 

customer satisfaction 

by creating positive 

perceptions of the 

tour, increasing 

customer loyalty, and 

encouraging repeat 

business. 

The study focused 

on all tour 

companies both 

high-end and 

budget-friendly 

ones. 

This study focused 

only on the high-

end tour companies 

and how customers 

view their services. 

Leelakulthanit 

and 

Hongcharu 

(2011) 

Factors that Impact 

Customer 

Satisfaction: 

Evidence from the 

Thailand Mobile 

Cellular Network 

Industry 

Retaining current 

customers is one of 

the most important 

critical success criteria 

in Thailand's mature 

mobile cellular 

network sector. 

The study focused 

on the Thailand 

Mobile Cellular 

Network Industry 

which is different 

from the Tours 

industry. Moreover, 

it was done in 

Thailand which is 

geographical 

different from 

Nairobi, Kenya 

This study analyzed 

specific factors such 

as promotional 

value, functional 

value, emotional 

value, and 

innovative value but 

in the tours industry 

in Nairobi 

Kitur (2017) Relationship Between 

Organizational 

Agility and Firm 

Performance 

Amongst Tours and 

Travel Companies In 

Nairobi, Kenya 

The management of 

tours and travel firms 

need to foster 

integration by rotating 

IT managers and 

provides oversite to 

the managers who 

supervise other 

operations. 

The study only 

focuses on the 

innovation aspect of 

tours and travel 

agencies in Kenya 

This study looked 

into the other 

aspects such as 

promotional value, 

functional value, 

and emotional value 

Mlay (2017) Strategic 

Entrepreneurial 

Orientation and 

Performance of 

Selected Tour Firms 

in Nairobi Kenya 

Firms should also 

invest heavily in 

training their 

employees in order to 

equip them with the 

necessary skills and 

knowledge. 

The study focused 

only on Strategic 

Entrepreneurial 

Orientation and 

Performance of 

Tour Firms 

This study analyzed 

specific factors such 

as promotional 

value, functional 

value, emotional 

value, and 

innovative value but 

in the tours industry 

in Nairobi 

Soe(2019) Analysis of Factors 

Influencing 

Customer Satisfaction 

And 

Customer Loyalty at 

The firm should put 

greater emphasis on 

price setting and 

constantly check rival 

pricing. Furthermore, 

The study mainly 

focused on 

Myanmar, an Asian 

country. Also, the 

study focuses on 

This study analyzed 

specific factors such 

as promotional 

value, functional 

value, emotional 



 

 

27 

 

Truemoney Myanmar in order to compete 

effectively in this 

business, the 

organization should 

concentrate fresh 

product development 

and product or service 

quality. 

financial services. value, and 

innovative value but 

in the tours industry 

in Nairobi 

Masrurul 

(2019) 

Impact of Service 

Quality on Customer 

Satisfaction in 

Bangladesh Tourism 

Industry: An 

Empirical Study 

customer satisfaction 

is greatly affected by 

the services offered by 

tours and travel 

agencies These 

services play a crucial 

role in determining the 

overall satisfaction 

and experience of 

customers when it 

comes to planning and 

booking their trips. 

One potential 

research gap is the 

impact of cultural 

sensitivity on 

service quality and 

customer 

satisfaction. 

Bangladesh is a 

country with a rich 

culture and 

customs, and 

tourists may have 

different 

expectations and 

preferences 

regarding the level 

of cultural 

sensitivity they 

receive from service 

providers in the 

tourism industry. 

This study focused 

on Nairobi which is 

culturally different 

from Bangladesh. 

(Source: Researcher, 2023) 

2.5 Conceptual Framework 

In this conceptual framework, the independent variables, namely promotional value, 

functional value, emotional value, and innovative value (Dutta et al., 2017; Khan & Mohsin, 

2017), are considered as factors that influence the customer's experience with a tours and 

travel company. These variables have the potential to affect the customer's satisfaction with 

the company's products and services. The dependent variable in this study is customer 

satisfaction (Aimee, 2019), which represents the overall outcome being measured. The figure 

below highlights the relationship between the different variables of this study based on the 

three research questions/objectives. 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

28 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework 

 

            Independent Variables                                                        Dependent Variable         

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: (Azhar et al., 2018) 

 

Promotional Value 

 Price discounts 

 Offering giveaways 

 Vouchers/ coupons 

 

Functional Value 

 Efficient and reliable 

transportation 

 Range of activities and 

excursions. 



Emotional Value 

 Experience 

 Enjoyment 

 

 Repeat customers. 

 Positive reviews. 

 Positive 

recommendations 

 

Innovative Value 

 Variety of products and 

services 

 Service technology 

 



 

 

29 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.6 Operationalization of Study Variables 

Table 2.2 Operational Variables 

Variable Operational definition How it is 

measured 

Source 

Independent Variables  

Promotional value  Price discounts 

 Offering giveaways 

 Vouchers/ coupons 

 

Ordinal 5-point 

Likert Scale 

Leelakulthanit 

and Hongcharu 

(2011) 

Functional value  Efficient and reliable 

transportation 

 Range of activities and 

excursions. 

 Flexible bookings and 

cancellation 

  

Ordinal 5-point 

Likert Scale 

Slack et al. 

(2020) 

Emotional value  Experience 

 Enjoyment 

 

Ordinal 5-point 

Likert Scale 

Arslanagic-

Kalajdzic et 

al. (2020) 

Innovative value  Variety of products and services 

 Service technology 

 

Ordinal 5-point 

Likert Scale 

Leelakulthanit & 

Hongcharu (2011) 

Dependent Variable 

Customer 

satisfaction 
 Repeat customers. 

 Positive reviews. 

 Positive recommendations 

 

Quantitative Kotler 

& Keller (2012) 



 

 

30 

 

(Source: Researcher, 2023) 

2.7 Chapter Summary 

This chapter reviews the literature on customer satisfaction with tours and travel agencies in 

Nairobi, Kenya. The theoretical framework includes the value-percept disparity theory and 

complex adaptive theory, which are used to understand factors influencing customer 

satisfaction. Empirical research on promotional, functional, emotional, and innovative values 

is examined. Gaps in existing research are identified, and a conceptual framework is 

presented to illustrate the relationships between independent and dependent variables. The 

study's objectives are clarified, and the operationalization of study variables is explained. The 

section outlines how the study variables will be defined and measured using a survey 

questionnaire. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

31 

 

 

 

CHAPTER THREE 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

3.1 Introduction 

This chapter explains the research methodology of the study. It described the research design 

utilized for the current study, the target population, sample size and design, data collection 

techniques, data validity and reliability, and how the data was analysed and presented. Lastly, 

the ethical considerations used will also be discussed. 

3.2 Research Philosophy  

The research philosophy guiding this study is positivism, which asserts that the world can be 

studied objectively, and knowledge can be acquired through the scientific method. Positivism 

is a research paradigm that emphasizes the use of empirical evidence, experimentation, and 

quantitative methods to understand and explain phenomena (Wilson, 2014). Within this 

philosophical framework, the study assumes that customer satisfaction with services offered 

by tours and travel agencies in Nairobi can be measured and studied objectively. By adopting 

a positivist research philosophy, this study aligns with the belief that only factual knowledge 

is reliable and trustworthy (Bajpai, 2011). The researcher is primarily concerned with facts 

rather than subjective impressions or interpretations. The findings generated through 

positivistic research are observable and can be statistically quantified, providing a solid 

foundation for drawing conclusions. The positivist philosophy is key in this study because is 

limits the researcher’s role to data collection and interpretation through an objective lens, 

ensuring that the research findings are observable, quantifiable, and conducive to rigorous 

analysis. 

3.3 The Research Design  

The research adopted descriptive research design. A descriptive study design aims to collect 

data that characterizes existing phenomena in a particular group. It determines and 

characterizes the variables' features while allowing for data collection and objective 

conclusions (Schindler, 2022). This study used high-end customers given they are the ones 

using the services of tour agencies such as Abercrombie & Kent Ltd, African Horizons 

Travel Safaris, Bush and Beyond Ltd, and Pollmans Tours Safaris Ltd-Msa.  Since the study's 



 

 

32 

 

goal was to characterize the study variables. Descriptive research design was adopted for the 

study. By outlining the factors of interest, this design provides more insight into the research 

problem. Descriptive research design describes the conditions the way it is and assist in 

answering questions such who, what, where, and when (Narver & Slater, 2000).  

3.4 Population of the Study 

A population is the complete group of individuals that a researcher intends to investigate and 

draw conclusions about in a research study (Biber, 200