SU+ @ Strathmore University Library Electronic Theses and Dissertations This work is availed for free and open access by Strathmore University Library. It has been accepted for digital distribution by an authorized administrator of SU+ @Strathmore University. For more information, please contact library@strathmore.edu 2020 An Assessment of the contribution of teaching ethics at Strathmore University to the ethical development of undergraduate students. Manyuru, Paschal Juma School of Humanities and Social Sciences Strathmore University Recommended Citation Manyuru, P. J. (2020). An Assessment of the contribution of teaching ethics at Strathmore University to the ethical development of undergraduate students [Thesis, Strathmore University]. http://hdl.handle.net/11071/12024 Follow this and additional works at: http://hdl.handle.net/11071/12024 https://su-plus.strathmore.edu/ https://su-plus.strathmore.edu/ http://hdl.handle.net/11071/2474 mailto:library@strathmore.edu http://hdl.handle.net/11071/12024 http://hdl.handle.net/11071/12024 An Assessment of the Contribution of Teaching Ethics at Strathmore University to the Ethical Development of Undergraduate Students Paschal Juma Manyuru Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters in Applied Philosophy and Ethics at Strathmore University School Humanities and Social Sciences Strathmore University Nairobi, Kenya June 2020 This dissertation is available for Library use on the understanding that no quotation from the dissertation may be published without proper acknowledgement. ii DECLARATION I declare that this work has not been previously submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the dissertation contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the dissertation itself. © No part of this dissertation may be reproduced without the permission of the author and Strathmore University. iii ABSTRACT Various studies in Kenya and other countries show the importance of ethics and ethical conduct in virtually all spheres of life. Unlike most Kenyan universities, Strathmore University teaches ethics to all its undergraduate students. The researcher set out to investigate the objectives of the teaching of ethics and the students’ perception towards the course. He also wanted to examine the contribution of the course towards making students become more ethical, based on their own assessment. The current generation of 4th year students was selected because of their “nearness”, in terms of time, to joining the labour market where they will be confronted with ethical dilemmas that exist in virtually all professions. The contribution of the teaching of ethics was the focus of this study. The researcher used a mixed method research design where both quantitative and qualitative data collection tools were used. The findings gathered from in-depth interview discussions, questionnaires and focus group discussions were analysed and evaluated in the context of the Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Model whose background is supported by the philosophy of the human person. The outcomes of the study shed light on the contribution of the teaching of ethics towards making undergraduate students at Strathmore University more ethical persons. The study may be used by other universities to include ethics courses in their undergraduate education curriculum. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ......................................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................... ix DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS ............................................................................... x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY .................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Background ........................................................................................................ 1 1.3 Problem Statement ............................................................................................. 4 1.4 Overall aim of the Research ............................................................................... 5 1.5 Research Objectives ........................................................................................... 5 1.6 Research Questions ............................................................................................ 5 1.7 Scope of the study .............................................................................................. 5 1.8 Limitations of the study ...................................................................................... 6 1.9 Significance of the study .................................................................................... 6 1.10 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 7 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 8 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 8 2.2 Empirical Review ............................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 The role of ethics in the higher education curricula .................................... 8 2.2.2 Literature on ethics at Strathmore University ............................................ 11 2.2.2.1 Literature regarding the ethical objectives of Strathmore University . 11 2.2.2.2 Understanding of ethics by undergraduate students............................ 12 2.2.2.3 Literature on the contribution of the teaching of ethics to students .... 13 2.3 Theoretical Review ........................................................................................... 14 2.3.1 The human person and the importance of ethics ....................................... 14 2.3.2 The ethical person: according to Deontological and Consequentialist Theories .............................................................................................................. 16 2.3.3 The ethical person from the Virtue Ethics Theory perspective ................. 19 2.4 Research gaps ................................................................................................... 21 2.5 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................... 21 2.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 24 v CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................... 25 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 25 3.2 Research Design ............................................................................................... 25 3.3 Population and Sampling .................................................................................. 25 3.4 Data Collection Methods .................................................................................. 29 3.5 Data analysis ..................................................................................................... 35 3.6 Research Quality .............................................................................................. 35 3.7 Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................... 36 3.8 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 37 CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATIONS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ............................ 38 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 38 4.2 Findings from Pioneer Faculty Members (Key Informants) ............................ 38 4.2.1 General information from the two Key Informants ................................... 38 4.2.2 The background to the starting of ethics course at Strathmore University 39 4.2.3 Review of initial objectives of teaching ethics at Strathmore University.. 41 4.2.4 Validity of the initial objectives of teaching ethics with changing times .. 42 4.3 Findings from the students ............................................................................... 44 4.3.1 Understanding of ethics and the ethical person ......................................... 47 4.3.2 Students’ perception of the objectives of teaching ethics .......................... 53 4.3.3 Contribution of the teaching of ethics........................................................ 55 4.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 59 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 60 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 60 5.2 Importance of ethics in undergraduate education curriculum .......................... 60 5.2.1 Anthropological understanding of the human person ................................ 60 5.2.2 Holistic Education...................................................................................... 61 5.3 Dimensions of teaching ethics .......................................................................... 62 5.3.1 The three aspects of normative ethical theories ......................................... 63 5.3.2 Comparison between the objectives of PFME and students’ perception... 65 5.4 Relevance of Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Model ............................................... 67 5.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 68 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................ 69 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 69 6.2 Summary of key findings ................................................................................. 69 6.3 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 71 vi 6.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................ 72 6.5 Suggestions for further research ....................................................................... 73 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 74 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 79 Appendix 1: Timetable of Dissertation activities ................................................... 79 Appendix 2: Research Budget estimate .................................................................. 80 Appendix 3: Informed Consent and Interview Guide for PFME at Strathmore University ............................................................................................................... 81 Appendix 4: Informed Consent Form for University Student interviewees ......... 85 Appendix 5: Students’ Questionnaire ..................................................................... 88 Appendix 6: Interview Schedule for FGDs with SU 4th year undergraduate students. .................................................................................................................. 92 Appendix 7: Approval of research by IERC SU .................................................... 94 Appendix 8: Turnitin Similarity Report ................................................................. 95 Appendix 9: NACOSTI license .............................................................................. 96 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2. 1: Diagrammatic presentation of the nature of the human person, Dr Catherine Dean ........................................................................................................... 15 Figure 2. 2: Aristotelian Virtue Ethics (Happiness) Model ....................................... 22 Figure 3. 1: Convergent Parallel Mixed Method (Creswell, 2018, pp. 220).............. 29 Figure 4. 1: Gender distribution of student respondents ............................................ 44 file:///C:/Users/manyuru/Desktop/Reviewed%20dissertation%20doc%2023%20June.docx%23_Toc44599254 file:///C:/Users/manyuru/Desktop/Dissertation%20Version%209%20as%20at%2010th%20January,%202019.docx%23_Toc29819773 file:///C:/Users/manyuru/Desktop/Dissertation%20Version%209%20as%20at%2010th%20January,%202019.docx%23_Toc29819773 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 2. 1: Linking Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Model to research objectives ............ 24 Table 3. 1: Fourth Year full-time undergraduate students in different courses as at December 2019 .......................................................................................................... 27 Table 3. 2: Data collection matrix .............................................................................. 32 Table 3. 3: Linking quantitative questions to components of research model and research objectives ..................................................................................................... 34 Table 4. 1: Students questionnaire distribution from different courses ..................... 45 Table 4. 2: FGDs Gender composition ...................................................................... 46 Table 4. 3: An ethical person strives at all times to live a virtuous life ..................... 48 Table 4. 4: Ethics is about ensuring maximum pleasure and minimum pain ............ 49 Table 4. 5: Ethics is mainly about the consequences arising from actions performed .................................................................................................................................... 50 Table 4. 6: “I consider what is good for me to be good for others” ........................... 51 Table 4. 7: “To me, ethics is about adherence to a given code of conduct” .............. 52 Table 4. 8: “As long as it is my duty, I will consider it ethical to perform it” ........... 52 Table 4. 9: Ethics is mainly meant to help one be a better professional person ........ 54 Table 4. 10: Understanding of ethics helps one appreciate the common good .......... 56 Table 4. 11: Contribution of ethics towards character development ......................... 57 Table 4. 12: Consistency between what is taught and what is practised at the university .................................................................................................................... 58 Table 4. 13: Practice of ethics restricts freedom ........................................................ 59 ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS COVID-19 Corona Virus Disease (Originated in Wuhan City in China in 2019) CUE Commission for University Education EACC Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission of Kenya FGD Focus Group Discussion JKUAT Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology MAPE Masters of Applied Philosophy and Ethics NACOSTI National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation RQ Research Question SGDs Sustainable Development Goals SHSS School of Humanities and Social Sciences SPSS Statistical Package for social Sciences SU Strathmore University SU IERC Strathmore University Institutional Ethics Review Committee TI Transparency International UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization PFME Pioneer Faculty Member of Ethics x DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS Eudemonia: Classical Greek word for happiness. Human Nature: it is a concept that underscores the fundamental dispositions and characteristics that human beings are said to possess naturally. Moral Law: a set of universal rules that are engrained in the human conscience that guide every person to decipher what is morally right or wrong. Principle of Truth: the principle based on the affirmation of “what actually is in reality” and the human mind. Unity of Life: a condition emanating from human actions and behaviour that collectively contribute towards harmonious human existence. Virtue: it is a human positive trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus valued as the foundation of principle of a good moral being. xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To God Almighty, In-charge of everything. I extend my very special gratitude to my dear wife Josephine and children for their consistent love, interest, patience and encouragement. To my good friend and mentor, Dr. John Branya, for insisting and ensuring I study MAPE. My special gratitude to my wonderful supervisor, Dr Catherine Dean, for her rigour, encouragement and professionalism. To all the staff of SHSS for their support throughout the course and especially the Dean, Dr. Magdalene Dimba, for her wisdom and guidance. Last and not least, to my wonderful MAPE colleagues, who made the course very interesting and especially Gabriel Dinda, with whom I spent countless hours philosophising, sometimes deep into the night 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1.1 Introduction The main focus of this study was to investigate the objectives of teaching Ethics to full-time undergraduate students at Strathmore University and the extent to which this teaching contributes towards helping the students become more ethical in their lives. This Chapter begins with the background to the study and proceeds to define the statement of the problem, its objectives, scope and limitations, ending with the significance of the study. 1.2 Background Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the moral life of man, which is the human life of a person, considered from the point of view of its goodness or badness (Debeljuh, 2006). Over the centuries, ethics has attracted varying meanings and interpretations from different philosophers. This has led to three distinct categories into which ethical theories can be classified namely: Virtue Ethics, Deontological Ethics and Consequentialist (also referred to as Utilitarian) Ethics (Johnson & Reath, 2012). These theories are explained in more detail in the literature review under sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2. From the above ethical theories, different approaches have been taken in defining “what is good” or “what is ethical”. While the Deontological and Utilitarian Ethical Theories try to explain what constitutes ethical conduct, they fail to account for the motive or the intrinsic involvement of the agent as a basis for his actions (Stocker, 1997). According to Stocker, motive is important to ethics and should be considered as well rather than only duty or consequences which are the main focus of the Deontological and Utilitarian Ethical Theories. Virtue Ethics has enjoyed a revival during the last fifty years from the time when Elizabeth Anscombe published a famous article, “Modern Moral Philosophy” (Anscombe, 1957). Before this time, the two main approaches to ethics were Utilitarianism and Deontological Ethics. Many philosophers heeded Anscombe’s call including Alasdaire MacIntyre, Philippe Foote and Roselind Hursthouse (Stocker, 1997). While supporting Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics Theory, Alasdaire MacIntyre criticizes modern liberal individualism and scientific determinism for separating 2 practical reasoning from morality and political life and proposes instead a return to Aristotelian Virtue Ethics (MacIntyre, 2014). MacIntyre argues that the human intellect and morality are interwoven in a special way that goes into forming the unity of the human person. Without this unity, the human person loses his fundamental nature and gets reduced to the whims of science and sociology with their inherent limitations that tend to reduce philosophy to some form of basic science (MacIntyre, 2014). From Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Theory, it is clear that ethics considered from the point of view of virtue is more consistent with the nature of the human person than the Deontological and Utilitarian Ethical theories. This is so because, the human person, existing in the unity of body and soul and endowed with intellect and free-will is capable of developing himself to the highest human potential through the exercise of virtue (Debeljuh, 2006). This, according to Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Theory is a necessary condition for acquiring happiness (Debeljuh, 2006), a supreme good to which all man’s actions are geared to. It is for this reason that this research study was anchored on the Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Theory. Lack of sound ethical business practices led to the global financial crisis that started around 2000, in the USA, where several renowned companies including Enron in 2001, Lehman Brothers in 2008 and Bernard Madoff Investment Securities in 2008 collapsed leading to serious loss of jobs, investments and retirement funds (Melé 2009). Melé argues these institutions collapsed because they ran corrupt systems devoid of sound corporate governance principles. He further observes that the institutions were run by managers who had acquired a higher level Business School education. According to Melé, such leaders lacked a sense of responsibility and virtue, in essence, they lacked sound ethics. During the last two decades, explicit debate about the role of ethics and values in higher education has gained prominence (Melé, 2009). Melé observes there has been a proliferation of written complex codes of ethics and value statements, the establishment of ethics-related committees in different professional areas and the appointment of legal experts to deal with misconduct litigation. Melé argues that the effort and other resources expended towards developing these different codes of ethics would be greatly reduced if people entrusted with the administration of the common good embraced ethical lifestyles born out of virtue. Following these observations, many educational institutions of higher learning 3 have turned back to re-design the educational curriculum that links the intellect, heart and mind of the human person in wholeness (Melé 2009). Melé concludes that through this approach, these institutions aim to nurture future managers with sound knowledge and ethical principles. Thomas Aquinas, affirms that the main goal of education is to teach man which issues are worthwhile in life through knowledge of different subjects (Aquinas, 1948). He further states that this knowledge is not complete if the learner does not understand, appreciate and be guided by ethical considerations in his daily conduct. Education which mainly places strong emphasis on passing academic examinations and not developing human character is not complete (Sayers, 1980). This means that education, in its proper sense should go beyond mere technical training, and put significant emphasis on the formation of human character. Chapter six of the constitution of Kenya, promulgated in 2010 lays great emphasis on ethics and integrity. Institutions such as Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission of Kenya (EACC, 2017) and Transparency International (TI, 2018) play important oversight roles in taming unethical practices such as corruption and cheating in public offices in Kenya. In recent years, the education system in Kenya, especially in institutions of higher learning, has faced several ethical challenges including cheating in examinations and poor discipline in colleges and universities leading to strikes (Githui, 2012). At the secondary and primary levels of education, the Cabinet Secretary disbanded the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) Board and instituted more stringent administration processes in the handling of the exams in 2016 in an effort to incorporate higher level of integrity and ethical standards in the administration of education (EACC, 2017). Given that students joining universities emanate from this kind of educational background, it becomes important for the universities to consider providing lessons on ethics to help students in their character development among other human qualities. Alex Awiti and Bruce Scott (2016), in a research done on the integrity of the youth between the ages of 18 and 35 in Kenya, found out that up to 58% of the youth believed that it did not matter how one made money as long as one did not end up in jail, 47% admire those who make money by hook or by crook, 30% believe that corruption is 4 profitable, 73% are afraid to stand up for what is right for fear of retribution and 35% of the youth would readily take or give a bribe (Awiti & Scott, 2016). This is a matter of serious ethical concern considering that the majority of the youth fall within the population range of students in the institutions of higher learning. Cases of unethical conduct, including student cheating in examinations, lecturers demanding favours from students in exchange for marks in examinations, in a number of universities in Africa have been reported in recent times (Maina, Mkanyika, Atieno, Openda, Otsialo, Munene, Njeru, Kinogu, Fredrick, Byron, Wasonga, Makokha and Kimutai, 2019). A lecturer and head of Human Resource Department of Murang’a University of Technology was dismissed for awarding marks to a female student who had not sat exams, replacing and omitting the name of a male student from the list. The court ruled that his dismissal was fair and his actions were egregious (Maina et al, 2019). The University of Abuja dismissed a professor and former dean of the Faculty of Agriculture for sexual harassment (Onkwonkwo, 2019). It is observed from the foregoing examples that universities are putting in efforts to encourage ethical conduct in their dealings. Strathmore University has tried to address these ethical issues from its inception by generally upholding a well-established code of conduct for students and lecturers through such practices as dress code, fair and impartial administration of justice and also by teaching principles of ethics to its undergraduate students. Given the experience of Strathmore University, this study sought to understand the contribution of these practices to helping students become more ethical in their actions. This could contribute to understanding better how higher education institutions can facilitate the development of graduates who are able to uphold ethical practice in their professional endeavours. 1.3 Problem Statement The above literature suggests that knowledge and practice of ethics contribute significantly towards enhancing the nature of the human person and fulfilment in human life. However, no research had been done to assess whether the teaching of ethics at Strathmore University actually contributes to the ethical development of the undergraduate students. 5 1.4 Overall aim of the Research The overall aim of this research study was to assess the extent of the contribution of the teaching of ethics to undergraduate students at Strathmore University. 1.5 Research Objectives 1. To establish the objectives of teaching ethics to undergraduate students in Strathmore University. 2. To establish the extent to which the students’ understanding of the ethical person is in tandem with the objectives of teaching ethics at Strathmore University. 3. To find out to what extent the teaching of ethics contributes to making students become more ethical based on their own self-assessment. 1.6 Research Questions 1. What are the objectives of teaching ethics to undergraduate students in Strathmore University? 2. To what extent is the students’ understanding of the ethical person in tandem with the objectives of teaching ethics at Strathmore University? 3. To what extent does the teaching of ethics contribute to making students more ethical based on their own assessment? 1.7 Scope of the study The research involved the collection of data related to the teaching of ethics from 126 full-time undergraduate fourth year students at Strathmore University. Given that they studied principles of ethics in second year, it was assumed that they had sufficient time to internalize and apply these ethical principles during their third and fourth year through interactions with their colleagues and lecturers. Data was also gathered from two of the pioneer faculty members who formulated the objectives for teaching ethics at Strathmore University. Relevant university documents relating to the research were studied to give the necessary background and perspective. 6 1.8 Limitations of the study Ideally a research of this type, covering the objectives of teaching ethics and its contribution to making students more ethical persons, should extend to the alumni of the university, to investigate the benefits of learning ethics in their work environment. However, due to the constraints of time which would be required for a wider study, the research was limited to full-time fourth year undergraduate students of Strathmore University. 1.9 Significance of the study From the research findings, the perception of the students about the “ethical person” is to a large extent in tandem with the objectives of teaching ethics at Strathmore University which are aligned to moral law and the value of the human person. However there are some students whose understanding of ethics and the “ethical person” is more deontological and consequentialist in orientation. This group of students take ethics to be adherence to duty or the consequences that arise from human actions. This research finding may be useful to ethics course reviewers and lecturers at Strathmore University in organising the course content and delivering it in ways that always remain aligned to the moral law and the dignity of the human person. Most students acknowledge how the learning of ethics has contributed towards improving their character, making them become more ethical people. However a few students think the ethics course had no contribution to their ethical stand mainly because of the way it was taught in some cases, relying largely on Christian teachings and not allowing enough time for discussions. From the research findings, it is not necessary to invoke religious teachings in ethics since the principles of ethics are based on the truth regarding the nature of man and the natural law that governs human behaviour. These are facts that stand on their own and do not change with time. This research could therefore assist lecturers of ethics to consider how they package their teaching to avoid leaning on religious principles which could alienate students whose faith does not allow them to subscribe to such principles. Dissemination of the findings of this research study to the Commission of University Education (CUE) and policy makers in the Ministry of Education, could help to shed 7 light on the importance of teaching ethics in universities in Kenya and possibly how to do so effectively. 1.10 Conclusion This Chapter describes the background to the study, highlighting various ethics theories in relation to the ethical person. The problem research objectives and research questions are covered in this Chapter. The Chapter ends highlighting the scope, limitations, and significance of the study. 8 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This Chapter covers the rationale of teaching ethics in institutions of higher learning as well as reviewing the literature regarding the teaching of ethics at Strathmore University. The Chapter also discusses the meaning and importance of ethics from different ethical theory perspectives and how these theories relate to the objectives of the study in general. Research gaps in this study are explained. The importance of not only learning ethics but actually putting what is learned into practice is also explained. The theoretical model guiding the design of the study is established and explained. The Chapter ends with the conclusion of the material covered. 2.2 Empirical Review 2.2.1 The role of ethics in the higher education curricula The primary motivation of teaching ethics in business schools and other institutions of higher learning should not be the fear that ethical scandals will lead to a loss of public confidence in a particular profession (Illingworth, 2004). Illingworth argues that a fundamental requirement for an ethics course in universities is that it makes people think about the ethical decisions that they make besides gaining the ability to engage in ethical reasoning. According to Illingworth (2004) there are three basic approaches to teaching ethics in institutions of higher learning. The first is the pragmatic approach which relies on teaching students about codes of ethics. In this approach, the emphasis is on elaborating what it means to be a professional in terms of behaviour which resonates with an agreed code of conduct. The second is an embedded approach which bases ethics on life’s moral issues. In this approach, ethics is taught as part of a more general understanding and application of morality in general life situations. The third is a theoretical approach in which students are introduced to ethical theories which can then be applied to a variety of situations and contexts. When ethics is taught well, taking into account the more holistic approach of the human person, and received well by students, there is a transformation in students’ attitudes that makes them behave ethically in their relationships and professional work (Illingworth, 2004). This argument is in tandem with Virtue Ethics Theory which underscores the importance of virtuous living exhibited by an ethical person (Aristotle, 9 1996). An ethics course should therefore aim at developing the intellectual tools that enable students to be able to decide right from wrong and act accordingly, demonstrating commitment to moral values (Illingworth, 2004). Illingworth affirms that the teaching of ethics does not necessarily transform students to act in an ethical manner but it exposes them to notice faulty rationalizations, allowing them to develop critical thinking skills which is important for their station in life as well as for the professional work environment that they soon find themselves in. The youth represent a significant category in number in many countries. They are looked upon to determine the future of the country and the general morals of society (Moutlana, 2007). Moutlana argues that the teaching of ethical values should be integrated within the higher education curricula. Knowledge of ethics equips the students with basic truths that help them navigate more easily in the rapidly increasing complex world brought about by globalization, specialization, advancement in technology and multi-cultural interactions. Lord Justice Potter, Chair of the Legal services in Britain, holds that though it is important to have codes of conduct, it is more important that the core values and beliefs which underpin the code are understood (Potter, 2002). Porter explains three steps that must be taken in the teaching of ethics. Firstly, teaching ethics in such a way that it encourages the students to treat its study as an active and continuing challenge rather than a passive and finite undertaking. Secondly, teaching ethics in such a way that the method of instruction obliges the students to deal with critical problems in an engaged and participating session. Thirdly teaching ethics in such a way that ensures the process of the product of ethical reasoning is connected to the complex socio- political context in which ethical controversies and their proposed solutions exist (Potter, 2002). Potter holds that teaching of ethics in a professional degree goes beyond just training individuals to understand and apply a code of professional ethics. Effective learning of ethics should therefore be enhanced by an educational curriculum which commits students to understand and practise fundamental values that promote individual virtuous living and social harmony. These fundamental values are anchored on the basic knowledge about the human person as a being endowed with body and soul, intellect and will, and freewill to make personal choices (Aristotle, 1996). The learning of ethics gives students the opportunity to know the appropriate ways of 10 exercising their freewill in choosing good actions that eventually develop into virtues which transforms the individual into an ethical person (Debeljuh, 2006). The importance of teaching ethics in professional degrees is well recognized but what is less obvious is the rationale for who does the teaching and what the best approach to teaching ethics is (Ozolins, 1996). Ozolins argues from an Aristotelian perspective that there is a distinct difference between a person who is good because he lives a morally virtuous life and a person who is good basically because he possesses the technical skills required of his profession (Ozolins, 1996). According to Ozolins, a virtuous and morally upright person, is more suitable to teach ethics than the purely technical person. This is because, a teacher’s ethical stance governs how he or she instructs and assesses students. According to Ozolins, students are able to observe and infer from the general conduct of the lecturer and the examples he gives, in the course of teaching, whether he actually believes the ethical principles taught to be true or not. Ozolins concludes that this in turn influences the students as to whether to treat ethics as simply one more subject to study and pass or an important course that is meant to transform them into ethical persons. To be successful, an ethics unit has to get four elements right (Clarkeburn, 2002). Firstly, the course design has to be at the right development level for the students and to meet their needs. Secondly, ethics courses should be run at those stages in their lives when students are most receptive to the study of ethics. This could begin in the first year of undergraduate study because it makes the students appreciate and incorporate ethics in their relationships and professional work right from the beginning and progressively assimilate it into their other aspects of life. Thirdly, the course should be of appropriate length. Clarkeburn suggests that this should be four to twelve weeks in length. Finally, a case study approach should be used to allow students to practise their moral decision making skills. Besides the theory learned, this approach gradually habituates students in making sound choices that work towards transforming them into ethical persons. Ethics as a discipline of critical thinking and learning has not been widely integrated in the current training and education system in institutions of higher learning in Kenya (Githui, 2012). Githui argues that there is a need to restructure the current education and teaching curricula in institutions of higher learning to include ethics. He 11 recommends the need for inclusion of ethicists and theologians in developing the curricula to help restructure and reinvent the whole system so that learners can be taken through progressive stages of ethical thinking and orientation as they pursue their careers. These stages, he continues to argue, should cut across all training programs offered by institutions of higher learning. In his research, Githui (2012), further found out that students who undertake ethical and critical thinking are more productive because of the high cognitive development – through association of different ideas, retention and awareness of reality. From that research, Githui recommends that institutions of higher learning, should educate students to become more morally and ethically well informed citizens who can think critically, analyse problems of society, look for solutions to such problems, apply them and accept social responsibilities. 2.2.2 Literature on ethics at Strathmore University 2.2.2.1 Literature regarding the ethical objectives of Strathmore University The mission of Strathmore University is to provide all round quality education in an atmosphere of freedom and responsibility, advancing excellence in teaching, research and scholarship, fostering ethical and social development and service to the society, installing a culture of lifelong learning, fostering high moral standards, and inspiring a culture of entrepreneurship (Strathmore University Statutes, 2018). Statute 3 of the University Statutes, highlights the university’s core values which include: responsibility and ethical practises. The university honours the beliefs, morals and the values of the academic profession and helps others to do the same. One of the functions of the university council according to the university charter is to develop the university and ensure that the quality and integrity of academic programs and professional courses of the university are maintained (Strathmore University Charter, 2008). Strathmore University lays great emphasis on academic integrity as explained the Student Handbook of 2019. The university is committed to fostering an intellectual and ethical environment based on the principles of academic integrity. The regulations require that students exhibit honesty and respect for ethical standards in carrying out academic work. Academic staff must demonstrate impartiality in offering students 12 information, opportunities and principles (Strathmore University Student Handbook, 2019). From the foregoing documentation, it is evident that the university is committed to high ethical standards and values in all its academic and administrative endeavours. It is also significant that the university chose Promoting Ethical Behaviour: “Do good, be more, Fight Corruption” as the theme of the year in 2020 (Strathmore University Website, 2020). The University Charter, Statutes and Student Handbook, although stating clearly the need for and importance of upholding high ethical standards do not explicitly state the objectives of teaching ethics to undergraduate students at the university. The researcher therefore, set out to establish the specific objectives of teaching ethics to the undergraduate students of the university. 2.2.2.2 Understanding of ethics by undergraduate students Undergraduate students are taught ethics in their second year of study. However, the scope of this study covered only fourth year students. This is because fourth year students, having had more time on campus to possibly internalise and practise what they learnt in second year, were taken to be in a better position for the study than other undergraduate students in earlier years. All undergraduate students are required to appraise, not just their lecturers and their methods of course delivery, but also other parameters such as: subject content, quality and relevance of materials presented, timekeeping, subject knowledge and level of preparedness among others. As part of the desk review to understand the perception of students towards the understanding of ethics, the researcher requested permission to access randomly some of the appraisals. Permission was granted by the administration of SHSS. The feedback received from the appraisals was that the comments made by the students were not only important in facilitating improvement on the teaching methods but also created a platform for students to relate what was taught in theory and what they observed from the lecturers, from the ethical point of view. In most of the appraisals studied by the researcher, it was found that generally lecturers came to class well prepared, punctual, and knowledgeable of their subject matter. In a few of the appraisals students pointed out what they thought was room for improvement by some of the lecturers. The faculty administration used the feedback 13 from the students to engage lecturers so as to improve the quality of teaching as appropriate. The Strathmore University Student Handbook (2019) highlights a variety of on- campus practices that are meant to foster good professional and moral character of the students. Such practises include adherence to some form of dress code, prohibition of viewing pornographic materials, consumption of alcohol and illicit drugs on campus and filtered internet access. As explained in the students’ handbook, these practices relate to what is expected of an ethical person in society. However, due to the easy availability of immoral websites and social media outside Strathmore University, it is possible that students get access to immoral materials that can easily confuse and obscure their understanding of the ethical person. It is also for this reason that the researcher sought to establish the students’ understanding of the ethical person in line with objective 2 of the study. 2.2.2.3 Literature on the contribution of the teaching of ethics to students According to research done by the Corporate Staffing Service in Kenya in 2015, Strathmore University was ranked top among private universities for producing graduates that were most preferred by employers (Gicobi, 2015). The report describes qualities that make Strathmore University graduates appealing to employers and these include the public credibility of the university, quality of the learning environment and the ethical background that the university promotes (Gicobi, 2015). It would be unlikely that Strathmore was ranked top among private universities on ethical grounds, among other factors, if indeed ethics was not one of the foundational corner stones that supports it. In a talk given by Eric Kimani to Strathmore University alumni (Kimani, 2007), he emphasised how people lost their moral conscience because of a variety of unethical practices that they found themselves indulging in. Kimani, in his talk, pointed out the impact Strathmore University had left on him and many other students by virtue of having had a chance to go through the institution, during which process he benefitted from the inspiring academic and student environment. In speeches given by Daniel Ochieng, the President of Strathmore Student Council, 2016-2017, and Naomi Nyamweya during the 4th years’ farewell dinner in 2017, the 14 student leaders referred to the wonderful learning environment that enabled them excel in academic work and also made them more ethical persons (Strathmore University Website, 2020). James Mworia, Chief Executive Officer of Centum Company, in his reminiscence of his life as a student at Strathmore University explains how his understanding and appreciation of high professional standards and excellence in the workplace are attributable to his experience at Strathmore University as a student (Strathmore University Website, 2020). The foregoing testimonials and speeches, point to the fact that generally students who went through Strathmore University have fond memories of its conducive learning environment and family atmosphere, which have contributed towards enabling them grow in their careers. The teaching of ethics at Strathmore University could be a contributing factor to the students’ understanding and the orientation of their attitudes towards a sound professional approach in their careers after graduating from the university. Although the scope of this study did not include past students of Strathmore, the researcher sought to find out from the Pioneer Ethics Faculty members and fourth year university students whether the teaching of ethics had a part to play in making students ethical. 2.3 Theoretical Review 2.3.1 The human person and the importance of ethics Boethius defines person as “An individual substance of a rational nature” (Gichure, 1997). Based on this definition, Gichure explains that a person is an individual whose constitutive essence is of a rational and spiritual nature. She proceeds to explain further that it is this constitutive element or soul that distinguishes man from other animals, and confers to him the condition of rationality. This definition encompasses the detailed aspects of the human person as indicated in the Figure below. 15 Figure 2. 1: Diagrammatic presentation of the nature of the human person, Dr Catherine Dean From Figure 2.1 above, there are various faculties of the human person that differentiate him from other animal species. These include freedom, intellect and will. Through the exercise of these faculties, man is able to reason, decide, choose and freely act accordingly. The actions chosen are good if they are in conformity with the first principle of natural moral law, of doing good and avoiding evil” (Debeljuh, 2006). On the other hand, the actions are bad or evil if they go against this principle. It is at this stage that ethics starts being applied based on the rightness or wrongness of the act and how the good or bad actions affect the individual and society at large. Ethics is a practical normative science of wrongness and rightness of human conduct as known by natural reason, covering principles which govern a person’s conduct and behaviour (Gichure, 2008). Ethics is important because society cannot function without a series of commonly accepted moral codes that define boundaries of acceptable behaviour (Johnson & Reath, 2012). Johnson and Reath explain that ethics is important because there is not always a consensus on what type of behaviour is acceptable. They conclude by stating that studying ethics and the role it plays in society helps to understand human existence and relationships in a richer context, separating acceptable from unacceptable types of behaviour. Without ethics, everything happens as if we were all five billion passengers on big machinery and 16 nobody is driving the machinery and it is going faster and faster but we don’t know where to (Cousteau, 1989). Cousteau espouses that ethics as a branch of philosophy deals with the fundamental value of human relationships, the quality and the best of activities or behaviours which, from the viewpoint of morality are good, bad, accepted or unaccepted. Many profit and not-for-profit organizations in Kenya and the world over recognise the importance of ethics in business and other professional dealings. Recognizing the importance of ethics in society, UNESCO committed itself to support global education, scientific and cultural development of human society (UNESCO 2010), making ethics education an inseparable part of its agenda. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) formulated and agreed upon by 193 countries in Buenos Aires in the year 2015, for socio-economic development in the world, do support and encourage ethical conduct in the implementation of the agreed goals (United Nations, 2015). The SDGs aim to achieve decent lives for all on a healthy planet by 2030. The implementation of the goals are anchored on clear ethical principles of transparency and accountability. The collapse of a number of major financial institutions in the world has led to institutions of higher learning such as Harvard Business School reviewing and redesigning the content of what is taught at business schools (Melé, 2009). Melé observes that many business dealings all over the world are starting to demand the application of transparency and integrity, which are key ingredients in ethical practices. The Ethics and Anti-corruption Commission in Kenya was set up by the act of parliament in 2011 to handle unethical-related issues in the country following the promulgation of the new constitution in 2010 (The Kenya Gazette, 2012). Since its inception the commission has handled and resolved many cases of corruption and injustices in the country. From the foregoing examples, it is apparent that ethics is an important element in different spheres of human society. 2.3.2 The ethical person: according to Deontological and Consequentialist Theories Ethical theories are tools for ethical thinking that can be used in analysing the range of ethics that affect learning and training in organizational management, individual growth and intellectual nourishment (Senge, 2008). 17 Normative ethics broadly describes the theories of moral philosophy concerned with arriving at standards that regulate right and wrong behaviour in society, with three main approaches proposed (Debeljuh, 2006). The approaches fall in the categories of: Consequentialist Theory, Deontological Theory and the Virtue Ethics Theory. Although the normative ethics theories differ in their focus, they are not mutually exclusive (Debeljuh, 2006). The Consequentialist Theory of ethics, propounded by Jeremy Bentham and supported by John Stuart Mill, posits that the morality of an action depends on the consequences it produces (Bentham, 1948). Bentham argues that an ethical person is that, who through his actions, strives to bring about as much “good” as possible to the highest number of people. The problem with this description of the ethical person is that what is considered “good” is not necessarily defined in moral terms. However much Consequentialists differ about what the “good” consists of, they all agree that the morally right choices are those that increase, either directly or indirectly, the “good”. The ‘good” could be whatever is considered to bring about happiness, pleasure or any other action taken to bring about as much human satisfaction as possible to the highest number of people (Williams, 1973). Additionally, there seems to be no space for the Consequentialist in which to show partiality to one's own projects or to one's family, friends, and countrymen, leading some critics of consequentialism to deem it a profoundly alienating and perhaps self- effacing moral theory (Williams, 1973). Williams criticizes Consequentialism for what it seemingly permits, that for example, in certain circumstances innocents are killed, beaten, lied to, or deprived of material goods to produce greater benefits for others. Consequences, and only consequences, are used to justify any kind of act, for it does not matter how harmful it is to some so long as it is beneficial to the other majority (Williams, 1973). Arguments supported by Consequentialist Theories can easily also lead to hedonistic justification of unethical acts as being good simply because they are enjoyed by a large number of people as for example many people who get habitually drunk through abuse of alcohol (Johnson & Reath, 2012). Given the many bad acts that can easily be justified in society because of the number of people supporting them, for example “mob Justice”, the Consequentialist approach can lead to wrong endings. On the other hand, the Consequentialist approach can be suitably imbedded in systems of justice where behaving in a certain acceptable way gives the best results that leads to the common good of the people. For example, the act of obeying traffic rules has the consequence of creating harmony among drivers 18 and reducing accidents on the road (Njuguna, 2019). Hence the act of simply obeying traffic rules, even without analysing the morality of it, is good purely from the consequences it produces. Hence, from the foregoing observations, the interpretation of an ethical person from the Consequentialist Theory can be confusing and misleading. Deontological Ethical Theory, proposed and defended by Immanuel Kant, on the other hand holds that the morality of an action lies in conformance with the rules and duties to be performed as opposed to the consequences those duties produce (Johnson & Reath, 2012). In this ethical theory a person is morally obligated to act in accordance with a certain set of principles and rules regardless of the outcome. Kant’s moral theory is based on his view of the human being as having the unique capacity for rationality (Kant, 2016). According to Kant no other animal possesses such a propensity for reasoned thought and action, and it is exactly this ability that requires human beings to act in accordance with and for the sake of moral law or duty. Kant believes human inclinations, emotions and consequences should play no role in moral action; therefore, the motivation behind an action must be based on obligation that is well thought out before the action takes place (Kant, 2016). According to Kant (2016) morality should, in theory, provide people with a framework of rational rules that guide and prevent certain actions and are independent of personal intentions and desires. When ethical actions are justified on the basis of duty alone, Kant’s Deontological Theory seems to ignore the human freedom which is an important component of the human person. Although this theory applies well in situations where certain codes of conduct such as law and order, policies and procedures are mandatory, they can in other circumstances lead to wrong moral choices especially in situations where circumstances for the actions taken are not considered. This can be explained further by way of example where a student, following the school rules built on this theory, is expelled from school because of habitual lateness without making any effort to understand the circumstances which could possibly reveal that the student is an orphan whose guardians cannot afford regular bus transport to school. Strict adherence to the principles of Deontological Kantian ethical theory can lead to serious shortcomings. 19 Hence although these two ethical theories can apply well in some situations, they can easily also lead to wrong interpretations and wrong moral decision-making. 2.3.3 The ethical person from the Virtue Ethics Theory perspective A virtue is an excellent trait of character, a disposition, and well entrenched in its possessor (Ackrill, 1981). The concept of virtue refers to something that makes its possessor good: a virtuous person is a morally good, excellent or admirable person who acts and feels as she should. One of Aristotle's most influential works is the Nicomachean Ethics, where he presents a theory of happiness by seeking to answer the question: What is the ultimate purpose of human existence? (Ackrill, 1981). What is that end or goal for which we should direct all of our activities? To be an ultimate end, an act must be self-sufficient and final: that which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else and it must be attainable by man (Aristotle, 1996). Aristotle enshrines happiness as a central purpose of human life, the ultimate end and purpose of human existence and a goal in itself. According to Aristotle, all other goods such as honour, wealth, recognition, knowledge, friends, are a means towards obtaining happiness, while happiness is always an end in itself that encompasses the totality of one's life. According to Aristotle, what makes human beings different from the rest of the animal kingdom is the capacity to reason according to principles, and in so doing taking responsibility for their choices. Pleasure alone cannot constitute human happiness, for pleasure is what animals seek and human beings have higher capacities than animals. Happiness is the perfection of human nature. Since man is a rational animal, human happiness depends on the exercise of his reason and intellectual contemplation, which is the ultimate realization of our rational capacities (Adler, 1978). Aristotle tells us that the most important factor in the effort to achieve happiness is to have a good moral character, what he calls "complete virtue", where one actively displays all the different forms of virtues. Paraphrasing Aristotle, Sison, (2003), states that habituation in virtue is a prerequisite for achieving happiness, a universal condition that every human person pursues and on which the good functioning of society depends. According to Aristotle, a happy man is that who lives in accordance with complete virtue and is sufficiently equipped with external goods, not for some chance period but throughout a complete life (Aristotle, 1996). Aristotle argues that http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199213615/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_il_tl?ie=UTF8&tag=pursuitofha04-20&linkCode=as2&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0199213615 20 virtue is achieved by maintaining the Mean, which is the balance between two excesses, a settled condition of the soul which wills or chooses the Mean relative to ourselves, this Mean being determined by a rule or whatever we like to call that by which the wise man determines it (Aristotle, 1996). Developing a good character requires a strong effort of will to do the right thing, even in difficult situations. For Aristotle, education should be about the cultivation of character. According to Aristotle, friendship is one of the most important virtues in achieving the goal of eudemonia (happiness). While there are different kinds of friendship, the highest is one that is based on virtue (arête) (Aristotle, 1996). This type of friendship is based on a person wishing the best for their friends regardless of utility or pleasure. Aristotle calls it a complete sort of friendship between people who are good and alike in virtue (Aristotle, 1996). Aristotle values friendship so highly that he argues friendship supersedes justice and honour. The Aristotelian ethics is sometimes referred to as “virtue ethics” since its focus is not on duties or obligations, but on the development of character and the acquiring of cardinal virtues of courage, justice, temperance, and prudence and many other related ones. Virtue Ethics is agent-based meaning that the rightness or the wrongness is not in the act alone but in the person performing them as well: the agent is judged by his habit and behaviour as a good or virtuous person (Johnson & Reath, 2012). Of the existing normative ethical theories, the Virtue Ethics approach embraces the anthropological dimension of the human person, giving due regard to the human composition and human nature. From the literature above, Virtue Ethics Theory also places great emphasis on what, according to Aristotle, is the ultimate end in life that every human being pursues, namely happiness. This is in sharp contrast with the Consequentialist and the Deontological Kantian Theories which are act-centred: where the specific acts are judged as being right or wrong and not the person performing them. In Virtue Ethics Theory, goodness is in the person performing the act as well as the act itself (Debeljuh, 2006). This theory appears more wholistic as it takes cognizance of the important attributes of the human person and how they relate to the practice of ethics in society as explained in section 2.1.1. In addition to this, it can be observed that misinterpretation of the morality of an act is very much reduced when analysed 21 from a Virtue Ethics standpoint as opposed to the case in consequentialist and deontological approaches where, the intention of the agent is not necessarily taken into account. This brings to the fore the importance of grounding ethics education on foundations that recognize the ethical person from the perspective of the Virtue Ethics Theory, which recognizes the fundamental attributes of the human person, and not simply from the consequences or codes of conduct as propagated by Consequentialist or Deontological Kantian Theories. 2.4 Research gaps Theoretical and empirical literature on the importance of teaching ethics in general, in institutions of higher learning abound. Despite the available literature on the need for high ethical standards in Strathmore University, the objectives of teaching ethics to undergraduate students are not explicitly stated. To the best knowledge of the researcher, no study has been done to ascertain the students’ understanding of the ethical person and more specifically from the Virtue Ethics perspective. Similarly, no research has been conducted to establish the contribution of the teaching of ethics at Strathmore University towards making students become more ethical. These were knowledge gaps that this research study sought to address. 2.5 Theoretical Framework The theoretical model adopted for this research was derived from Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics on the subject of happiness as the ultimate and supreme good to which every human being aspires (Aristotle, 1996), and its close link with virtue. Aristotle places good moral character and virtuous life as necessary conditions for achieving happiness. Hence the Virtue Ethics Theory, unlike Deontologist and Consequentialist ethical Theories, is grounded on the development of character and practise of virtues. In following Aristotle’s expose on how happiness is lived, three important dimensions emerge, Reason, Virtue and Active Life on which happiness is anchored (Aristotle, 1996). The researcher therefore developed and adapted a model, based on these three pillars as indicated in Figure 2.2 to guide this study. 22 Reason Rationality is the distinctive activity that distinguishes man from other animal species (Aristotle, 1996). Aristotle states that happiness is the perfection of human nature. He further explains that since rationality is man’s distinctive and defining activity, it is only through its exercise that can lead to the supreme good, namely happiness. Aristotle says that human beings are happiest when they are guided by reason. It is the nature of man to be rational and on this basis, Aristotle places rationality as the base and starting point from which man moves to other realms of human activities. Since man is a rational animal, human happiness largely depends on the exercise of his reason and intellectual contemplation, which is the ultimate realization of our rational capacities (Adler, 1978). Adler, further states that devoid of reason, man losses a key characteristic that defines his nature. Exercise of Reason Life of Happiness Figure 2. 2: Aristotelian Virtue Ethics (Happiness) Model developed by the researcher 23 Reasoning skills enable people to comprehend, evaluate and accept or disregard claims and arguments, making it possible to understand and arrive at truth. Animals, by not possessing the capacity for rationality, cannot aspire for happiness. Therefore rationality is a necessary condition for ethical life and pursuit of happiness. Virtue As explained in section 2.3.3, virtue is an excellent trait of character, a disposition well entrenched in its possessor (Ackrill, 1981). Aristotle distinguished two categories of virtues namely; moral virtues, learned through habit and practice, and intellectual virtues, learned through reasoning and instruction. Practice of both sets of virtues leads to acquiring practical and theoretical wisdom which is a critical anchor for happiness. According to Aristotle, habituation in virtue is a prerequisite for achieving happiness. A happy man is that who lives in accordance with complete virtue (Aristotle, 1996). Happiness (eudaimonia) is virtuous activity, and hence without practice of virtue, happiness as elucidated by Aristotle cannot be achieved. Active Life Aristotle argues that a good life ought to be an active life (Aristotle, 1996). According to Aristotle, it is not enough for man to possess the capacity for rationality or to be knowledgeable about virtues. Rather, he needs to live an active life that actualises reason and virtue, putting them into action. Man is endowed with intellect and will. Rationality is a faculty of the intellect while practice of virtue is a faculty of the will. It is through active life, exercising intellect and will, reason and virtue, that character is formed leading to a virtuous life and hence happiness. The above explanation summarises the background of the three dimensions to happiness on which the Aristotelian Virtue Ethics (Happiness) Model is grounded. In this study, “Aristotelian Virtue Ethics (Happiness) Model” and “Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Model” refer to the same Model, anchored on the concept of “Happiness”. This Model was linked to the objectives of the research study as shown in Table 2.1. 24 Research Objectives Relevant pillar/s of the Aristotelian Virtue Ethics (Happiness) Model Objective 1: Objectives of teaching ethics  Virtue  Reason Objective 2: Understanding the meaning of ethics  Reason Objective 3: Contribution of the teaching of ethics  Virtue  Reason  Active life Table 2. 1: Linking Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Model to research objectives 2.6 Conclusion In this Chapter, both empirical and theoretical literature has been reviewed to bring out the role of ethics in institutions of higher learning. A review of the literature on ethics related to Strathmore University is presented. The Chapter also covers the meaning of the ethical person from different ethics theories. The research gaps justifying the study are also presented. Finally, the theoretical framework guiding the study, the Aristotelian Virtue Ethics (Happiness) Model, is explained. 25 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This Chapter covers the details of the research design employed in this study. The discussion in the Chapter focuses on the design, population sampling, and data collection procedures including validity and reliability of the research instruments and data analysis techniques employed to achieve the objectives of the study. Ethical standards required while conducting the study are also covered. 3.2 Research Design Research design is a plan for study, a set of methods and procedures used in collecting, analysing and interpreting data (Creswell, 2018). The research design developed for this study was the mixed method type. A mixed method research methodology incorporates the use of both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis techniques (Creswell, 2018). This methodology is appropriate because the qualitative and quantitative components supplement each other when used concurrently, where results of interviews from qualitative-based discussions fill in the gaps, with explanations of perceptions that may not be well covered by quantitative techniques alone (Flick et al, 2004). 3.3 Population and Sampling Population refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having common observable characteristics (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). Target population on the other hand refers to the entire group of individuals or objects to which the researcher is interested in generalizing the conclusions. The target populations for this research were both the pioneer faculty members and the fourth year full-time undergraduate students of Strathmore University. The target population for the first group was the pioneer faculty members who initially formulated the objectives for teaching ethics at Strathmore University. This population was sampled purposively to identify two of the three faculty members that designed the ethics course. 26 The second group consisted of the fourth year students to whom a close-ended questionnaire was administered and from which quantitative data was collected. According to the Strathmore University Academic Management System calendar, the population of 4th year undergraduate students at the time of writing this proposal was 1105 as indicated in Table 3.1. 27 No. Name of Course Number of Students 1. Bachelor of Commerce 400 2. Bachelor of Tourism Management 10 3. Bachelor of Science in Hospitality and Hotel Management 25 4. Bachelor of Business Science: Financial Engineering 20 5. Bachelor of Business Science: Financial Economics 75 6. Bachelor of Business Science: Actuarial Science 25 7. Bachelor of Science in Informatics and Computer Science 120 8. Bachelor of Business Information Technology 150 9. Bachelor of Science in Telecommunications (Telecommunications & Information System) 20 10 Bachelor of Laws 170 11 Bachelor Arts in Communication 15 12 Bachelor Arts in International Studies 60 13. Bachelor of Arts in Development Studies and Philosophy 15 TOTAL 1,105 Table 3. 1: Fourth Year full-time undergraduate students in different courses as at December 2019 28 In calculating the sample size for quantitative data collection, the following important parameters, as defined by Creswell, (2014) were considered: 1. Population Size: this refers to the total number of people who fit in the demography being researched. 2. Confidence level: gives the indication of the level of surety. It refers to the percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true population parameter. Statistically, this is normally calculated at 90%, 95% and 99% confidence limit. 3. Margin of Error (Confidence Interval): this is a figure that correlates the accuracy of the answers given by the sample to those of the entire population. Given the target population of 1105 fourth year full-time undergraduate students, Slovin’s formula (Guilford and Frutcher, 1973) was used to calculate the sample size for the questionnaires. According to this formula n =N/ (1+Ne2) Where: n = Sample population, N = Total Population, e = Margin of error. In this study, with N= 1105, and a confidence level of 90% a margin of error of 10 % (giving ‘e’ equivalent of 0.1) was adopted. Hence, the sample population ‘n’ = 1105/ (1+1105*0.12) = 92 The recommended sample population for response to the questionnaire was therefore 92 students. The third group consisted of the fourth year undergraduate students from whom qualitative data was collected through participation in focused group discussions. The researcher constituted 3 focus group teams consisting on average of 10 students each. Students participating in focus group discussions were not necessarily drawn from the 92 who participated in the quantitative data collection. The reason for this was to widen the data collected using both tools for purposes of comparison and analysis. 29 With the assistance of a few lecturers and student leaders, snowball sampling approach was used to invite students to participate in focused group discussions. 3.4 Data Collection Methods As indicated in Figure 3.1, three methods of data collection were employed for the study. The first method entailed a structured and guided face to face in-depth interview with two of the three pioneer faculty members that formulated the syllabus for the teaching of ethics in Strathmore University. One of the three members no longer resides in Kenya and hence the researcher used purposive sampling method to interview the two who were available. The pioneer faculty members were interviewed to establish the rationale for establishing and designing the ethics course at Strathmore University in reference to objective one of the study. The interview discussions were guided by the interview schedule as explained in Appendix 3. Qualitative data collection and analysis: from pioneer faculty members Quantitative data collection and analysis: from students Qualitative data collection and analysis: Students focus group discussions Compare and consolidate data Compare, relate and classify data into themes Interpret data Figure 3. 1: Convergent Parallel Mixed Method (Creswell, 2018, pp. 220) 30 The second data collection method was by way of a structured questionnaire with closed ended questions soliciting responses from the selected sample of students. A structured questionnaire is a method of data collection that seeks self-reported knowledge, attitude and statement of behaviour from a sample and has the main advantage of allowing the researcher to collect diverse information rapidly from the various respondents (Beins & McCarthy, 2018). For this group, the researcher used stratified non-random sampling aimed at obtaining fair representation from different course groups. With the permission of the lecturers and assistance of the student leaders, the researcher administered the questionnaire to the 4th year students both physically and online through a portal created for this purpose. The questionnaire administered was divided into two sections. Section one sought basic demographic responses while section two comprised of closed ended questions. The researcher held the opinion that it was not necessary to include open ended questions in the questionnaire because the qualitative aspects of the research which would have been covered by such questions were covered under focus group discussions. A focus group discussion is a form of qualitative research method where people from similar backgrounds and experiences are gathered together to discuss a specific topic of interest (Creswell, 2014). The third method of data collection was done through focus group discussions with three groups drawn from fourth year students to capture students’ rich information on important issues that could have been omitted in the data collected through questionnaires. For this group, snowball sampling technique was used (Appendix 6). Two groups consisted of 10 students each while the third group comprised 12 students, translating to a total of 32 students. This was about a third of the number of students participating in quantitative data collection. Given that qualitative data was meant to complement the quantitative data, filling the gaps and explaining perceptions not covered by the questionnaires, three focus groups were considered by the researcher to be adequate as data saturation was obtained. Focus group discussions were conducted online since the university had shifted all activities online due to the Covid-19 crisis and physical group meetings were not 31 tenable. The researcher, sought assistance from lecturers and student leaders to reach the respondents online. After establishing contact with the students, the researcher introduced the subject of the discussion and invited students who were willing to participate to join the WhatsApp groups created online. Once the consent to participate was received from the students, three WhatsApp groups were formed. The researcher then introduced the subject of the discussion focusing on open-ended questions and guided by the interview schedule as explained in Appendix 6. The researcher was able to probe and guide the discussion as students gave their responses. The discussions progressed and ended at saturation levels where no more new material was generated following prior discussions. Given the level and depth of probing at which the researcher aimed, he trained a research assistant of graduate level of education, who assisted in probing and capturing important points, presented in focus group discussions with the students. The research assistant also participated in interview discussions with PFME by helping capture all the important information to ensure accuracy and completeness. The data collection tools were designed around the research questions as shown in Table 3.2 below. 32 Research Questions Data Collection tool Type of questions 1. What are the objectives of teaching ethics to undergraduate students? In-depth discussion with pioneer faculty members Open-ended questions 2. What is the students’ understanding of the ethical person? Questionnaire: Section 2 Focus group discussion with students Closed-ended questions Discussion guide 3. What is the contribution of teaching ethics to university students? Questionnaire: Section 2 Focus group discussion with students Closed-ended questions Discussion guide Table 3. 2: Data collection matrix 33 The matrix presented in Table 3.3 relates the questions presented in the student questionnaire to the objectives of the research study. The questions relating to students’ understanding of ethics were deliberately more than those relating to the other two objectives because proper understanding of ethics from the right perspective is critical if one has to practise and live truly virtuous life. The right perspective requires proper understanding of the human person as a united composite of body and soul, intellect and will and freedom to make decisions (Debeljuh, 2006). Ethics related statements How it relates to objectives of the research 1 An ethical person is that who strives at all times to live a virtuous life. Objective 1: Objectives of teaching ethics 2 The learning of ethics at SU greatly contributed towards my character development. Objective3: Contribution of learning ethics 3 Through ethics, I have learned to appreciate the importance of common good in society. Objective1: Objectives of teaching ethics 4 To me, what is ethical is what brings about happiness from whatever source. Objective 2: Understanding of ethics 5 Ethics is about ensuring maximum pleasure and minimum pain for all the members of society. Objective 2: Understanding of ethics 6 I consider ethics to be mainly about the consequences arising from actions performed. Objective 2: Understanding of ethics 34 7 To me, ethics is about adherence to a given code of conduct Objective 2: Understanding of ethics 8 As long as it is my duty, I will consider it ethical to perform it. Objective 2: Understanding of ethics 9 I consider what is good for me to be good for all Objective 3: Contribution of learning of ethics 10 What is learned in ethics course is consistent with what is practised in SU Objective1: Objectives of teachings of ethics 11 Ethics is mainly meant to help me be a better professional at work. Objective 3:Contribution of learning of ethics 12 Practise of ethics restricts my freedom as a person Objective 2: Understanding of ethics Table 3. 3: Linking quantitative questions to research objectives 35 3.5 Data analysis Both the quantitative and qualitative data from the students were analysed and consolidated and the result of this was compared with the qualitative data from the pioneer faculty members. The quantitative data in the form of closed-ended questions in the questionnaire was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences. The qualitative data gathered from the in-depth interview and the focus group discussions was analysed using the key themes of the model discussed in the theoretical review section 2.3.3. The interviews on Focus Group Discussions and in depth discussions with pioneer faculty members were recorded on tape to ensure all comments were captured and later was transcribed for ease of analysis of the findings. The data from focus group discussions was analysed qualitatively and where appropriate, presented in the form of charts and other visual graphics. 3.6 Research Quality The quality of research study depends to a large extent on the accuracy of the data collection procedures on which the reliability and validity of the research anchors (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). Validity is the extent to which a research instrument measures what it is supposed to measure while reliability is the ability of the research instrument to consistently measure characteristics of interests overtime (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). The student questionnaire used in this study was subjected to both face and content validity tests to assess the extent of its fitness for the research. Face validity is a high level text check of whether the research instrument appears, at face value, to test what it is designed to test (Cohen et al, 2013). Face validity was ensured by administering a questionnaire to an academic expert at Strathmore University and a professional colleague, both of whom had been briefed about the study. Content validity was done prior to collection of data by two university academic experts with requisite knowledge to ensure proper coverage and representation of questionnaire content in relation to the research topic. 36 A typical focus group discussion involving at least two university education experts was simulated on line, ahead of the qualitative data collection. This was done to ensure acceptable standard procedures of conducting such discussions and their completeness were followed. Due to sudden and unexpected closure of the university, to mitigate the spread of COVID-19 as directed by the government of Kenya, the focus group discussions were held online through Whatsapp group platform. The group discussions were recorded into text messages which were then re-organised into themes to ensure accuracy and objectivity of data collected (Saunders et al, 2009). 3.7 Ethical Considerations All the respondents in this research study were adults above the age of eighteen years and therefore consent from their parents or guardians to participate in the research was not be necessary. However the personal consent of each correspondent was sought and signed for as specified in the Participant Information and Consent Form in Appendix 4. The Consent Form contained all other details of participation in the research including any risks or benefits to the respondents participating in the research. No incentives were offered for participation. Each respondent was informed that this was an academic research and confidentiality of the source of the data and the information provided would be upheld. The consent to record discussions for the sake of accuracy during qualitative interviews with pioneer faculty members was also sought from respondents. The data collected was stored and protected and was not made available to the general public. Respondents were informed they would be free to access the final research findings which would be made available in printed and electronic form in Strathmore library. It was explained to all the respondents that participation in the research was voluntary and that they were free to pull out of the research at any time and without incurring any penalty, and any data collected from them would be removed from the system. The researcher’s contact information as well as that of his supervisor were given to all respondents to facilitate quick response to any questions they could have or in case they later wished to withdraw from the research. 37 Ethical approval for the research was sought and granted from Strathmore University Institutional Review Committee [SU IERC] before starting the study. A research permit was also sought and granted in advance from NACOSTI before commencing the data collection. 3.8 Conclusion This Chapter has covered the proposed research approach and design explaining sampling procedures and collection of tools to be used. The method of data analysis in relations to research questions is described in the Chapter. The researcher has explained how research quality will be guaranteed and the ethical considerations that will be taken into account. 38 CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATIONS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS 4.1 Introduction This Chapter covers the results of the data collection starting with the in-depth interview discussion with two of the pioneer faculty members of the undergraduate ethics course at Strathmore University. Data collected in raw form from the questionnaires administered to undergraduate students undertaking different courses is presented. This is followed by information gathered from FGDs which sheds more insights and supplements the data collected through questionnaires. Finally, comparative analysis of the data from the pioneer faculty members and the consolidated feedback from the students is presented. 4.2 Findings from Pioneer Faculty Members (Key Informants) The researcher held interview discussions with two of the three pioneer faculty members of ethics in a bid to establish the responses to the research question one: What are the objectives of teaching ethics to undergraduate students in Strathmore University? The discussions were held with the two members separately on 2nd and 3rd April 2020. On both occasions, the researcher requested each member to introduce himself giving his professional and academic background and his association with Strathmore University as indicated in the interview schedule given in Appendix 3. This was then followed by specific questions as indicated in the schedule. Having obtained their permission, the discussions with the two members (Key Informant 1 and Key Informant 2), were recorded to capture all important details, and were later transcribed by the researcher, with the help of a trained research assistant to ensure important details were not left out. 4.2.1 General information from the two Key Informants Key Informant 1 introduced himself as an alumni of Strathmore College, who many years later, was part of the team that formulated the ethics course for undergraduate students. He became one of the pioneer faculty members of ethics and has all along taught this subject and Philosophical Anthropology, among other subjects, to undergraduate students at the university 39 After introducing himself, Key Informant 2 stated that he had been involved in educational matters in Kenya for over fifty years. Together with 2 other members, he was involved in establishing the ethics course which formed part of the undergraduate curriculum when the university decided to start offering degree courses in collaboration with JKUAT in 2001, while preparing its own charter which was granted in 2008. Although he has been involved in many administrative and academic affairs of the university, including teaching, he has not taught the undergraduate ethics course. 4.2.2 The background to the starting of ethics course at Strathmore University When asked to explain the background to the starting of the ethics course at Strathmore University, each pioneer member explained that the background originated from the educational philosophy of Strathmore University which was based on holistic, God- centred and all-round education that forms both the mind and character. They both agreed in their responses that the knowledge of philosophical anthropology was a prerequisite to understanding ethics. According to both respondents, Strathmore University laid great emphasis on the anthropological aspect of the human person as a being endowed with the potential to learn and improve himself and the society within which he lives. While career and general professional formation were regarded as important aspects of the educational curriculum, the university combined this with other aspects of the human formation, including teaching of ethics to provide holistic education to every student. This also entailed opening the minds of the students to a wider scope of human knowledge including cultural development and world views that enable them to live unity of life while appreciating its diversity. Key Informant 1 summarised the main objective of teaching ethics as being, “to give students deep connections derived from proper understanding of the nature and essence of the human person.” He further added that “it is only after this level of understanding that one can be expected to appreciate and practise principles of ethics well”. The respondent also explained that teaching the principles of ethics, was akin to teaching the principles of physical sciences such as engineering. In both cases, the students are taught to understand the underlying general principles which do not change with time and which are applied later in different situations of life. 40 “Ethics is a practical subject that through its understanding and experience, evolves into a rule of thumb that can easily be put in practise”, stated the Key Informant 1. He emphasised that ethics was not about rules or the do’s and don’ts in life but rather was about understanding to differentiate right and wrong and developing human character that enables one to use his freedom well in choosing what is right. “The rules and regulations are supposed to be derived from deep ethical principles and should not be taken to stand on their own”, he emphasised. He explained that in recent times, the general western world view has tended to lean more towards ethics based on deontology and utilitarianism, thus moving away from Aristotelian Virtue based ethics. However, he added that there had also arisen a new breed of thinkers who support Aristotelian Virtue Ethics Theory. This theory, he explained, is based on the understanding of the human person as a thinking being endowed with intellect, will and freedom and who through the exercise of this faculties develops virtues that lead him to happiness. He elaborated further that from his own teaching experience, some students were likely not able to agree with the principles of ethics taught simply because of their own personal dispositions and attitudes in life. This was more so the case, when such students were involved in practises that were appealing to their emotions but at the same time contrary to the principles of ethics taught. Making reference to Aristotle’s philosophy of learning, Key Informant 1 explained that experience played an important part in the learning of philosophical-related subjects, including ethics. Hence, some of the undergraduate students who were relatively young and whose life experience was limited were in some cases not in a position to easily understand and assimilate some of the ethical principles that are real- life based. Key Informant 2 explained that the general philosophy of education at Strathmore University is anchored on the principle that education of the mind (professional and technical knowledge), without character formation does not constitute holistic education. He broke down the salient objectives of teaching ethics to include making the students understand the anthropological aspect of the human person, development of character, ability to understand and judge right and wrong and use of one’s freedom to make ethical decisions in life. 41 He emphasised that teaching ethics would be useless if students, in the first place, did not understand the aspect of the natural law which is imbedded in every human person and the key faculties: intellect, will, heart, emotions and freedom which differentiate human beings from other animal species. He explained that the key objective of teaching ethics at Strathmore University originated from the fact that the university leadership believed, from the beginning, in holistic education. This type of education aimed at producing all-round students that were not only prepared for their careers in life but also had their character well formed to contribute ethically to the common good in society. Key Informant 2 stated that “lack of character formation makes one not live unity of life”. He gave an example of a very brilliant lawyer, who may be versed in legal matters but also thrives on defrauding other people. He said such a person lived double life which could not make him happy in life. 4.2.3 Review of initial objectives of teaching ethics at Strathmore University The researcher posed a question to both respondents as to whether, the objectives of teaching of ethics at Strathmore University had been reviewed since inception. They both explained in the same way that the objectives of teaching ethics could not change because they were anchored on the Principle of Truth from which the never-changing principles of the existence of God and the nature of the human person are based. Key Informant 1 explained further that ethics and related courses were reviewed every three to five years to enrich content and create synergy among different courses. The review also aimed at improving content delivery by the lecturers and enhance understanding by