ASSESSING THE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ADOPTION OF OFF 

GRID RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN KENYA. A CASE 

FOR KISII COUNTY. 

 

 

 

 

ALEX NYAMWEYA NYANGARESI 

MPPM 135799 

 

 

 

 

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE 

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF PUBLIC POLICY AND 

MANAGEMENT AT STRATHMORE UNIVERSITY.  

 

 

 

 

2024



 

 
 

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University Library 
 

  
 

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For more information, please contact library@strathmore.edu 

 

 
2024 

 

Assessing the factors influencing the 

adoption of off grid renewable energy 

technologies in Kenya - a case for Kisii 

County. 

 
 

Nyangaresi, Alex Nyamweya 
Strathmore Business School  
Strathmore University 
 

 

 

Recommended Citation 

Nyangaresi, A. N. (2024). Assessing the factors influencing the adoption of off grid renewable energy 

technologies in Kenya—A case for Kisii County [Strathmore University]. http://hdl.handle.net/11071/15522 

 
 
 
 

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DECLARATION. 

I declare that this work has not been previously submitted and approved for the award of a degree 

by this or any other University. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the dissertation contains 

no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made 

in the dissertation itself.  

 

© No part of this dissertation may be reproduced without the permission of the author and 

Strathmore University. 

 

Alex Nyamweya Nyangaresi. 

Registration Number: 135799. 

. 

Signature: …………………………………..…… 

Date:   …………..…………………………… 

 

 

APPROVAL  

The dissertation for Alex Nyamweya Nyangaresi was reviewed and approved by:  

 

Dr. Thomas N. Kibua. 

Strathmore Business School. 

. 

Signature: ………………………….………… 

Date:   …………………………….……… 

 

 

 

24/05/2024 

 
24/05/2024 



2 

 

DEDICATION 

To my two sons, Michael and Marktom, your unwavering smile and boundless love has been the 

cornerstone of my journey through this dissertation. Your patience and understanding have given 

me the strength to push on through challenges and celebrate triumphs. 

To my parents, and my in-law TJ, your guidance, wisdom, and unwavering belief in me have 

played an indispensable role in shaping this dissertation. Your insightful comments and thoughtful 

advice have helped refine my ideas and strengthen my arguments. 

I am profoundly grateful for the familial bond we share and the endless support you have provided. 

This dissertation stands as a testament to the collective effort and dedication of our family. 

Finally, I offer my deepest gratitude to God, whose grace has sustained me throughout this 

academic journey. In moments of doubt and uncertainty, it is His divine presence that has provided 

me with strength and clarity. I am humbled by His unwavering love and guidance, and I dedicate 

this work to Him, acknowledging His role as the ultimate source of inspiration and wisdom. 

 

  



3 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.  

I extend my heartfelt appreciation to Dr. Thomas Nzioki Kibua for his invaluable guidance and 

unwavering support as my dissertation supervisor. 

I am also grateful to Dr. Stella Nyongesa, Dr. Eliud Moyi, Prof. Neema Mori, Dr. Humphrey 

Njogu, Dr. William Muriithi, and Mr. Benjamin Kyalo for their insightful feedback, which 

significantly enriched the quality of this work. 

Furthermore, my sincere thanks go to Strathmore University for providing a conducive 

environment and the opportunity to pursue this degree. The university's commitment to excellence 

in education and its dedication to nurturing intellectual growth has been instrumental in equipping 

me with the necessary knowledge and skills to undertake this endeavor. 

 

  



4 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

DECLARATION i 

DEDICATION ii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv 

LIST OF TABLES viii 

LIST OF FIGURES ix 

ABBREVIATIONS x 

ABSTRACT xi 

CHAPTER ONE 1 

1.1 1 

1.1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................... 1 

1.1.2 Factors Influencing Adoption of Off Grid Renewable Energy Technologies ............... 4 

1.1.3 Kenya Energy Scenario .................................................................................................. 6 

1.2 Problem Statement .............................................................................................................. 13 

1.3 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................... 15 

1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 16 

1.5 Scope of the Study .............................................................................................................. 16 

1.6 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 17 

CHAPTER TWO 18 

LITERATURE REVIEW 18 

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 18 

2.2 Theoretical Review ............................................................................................................. 18 

2.2.1 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) ....................................................................... 18 

2.3 Empirical Review................................................................................................................ 21 



5 

 

2.3.1 Socioeconomic factors ................................................................................................. 22 

2.3.2 Environmental concerns............................................................................................... 26 

2.3.3 Psychosocial factors ..................................................................................................... 30 

2.3.4 Technological factors ................................................................................................... 34 

2.4 Summary and Research Gap ............................................................................................... 38 

2.5. Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................................... 52 

CHAPTER THREE 56 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 56 

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 56 

3.2 Research Philosophy ........................................................................................................... 56 

3.3 Research Design.................................................................................................................. 57 

3.4 Target Population ................................................................................................................ 57 

3.4.1 Sampling Technique and Sample Size ......................................................................... 57 

3.5 Data Collection Instruments ............................................................................................... 61 

3.6 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................. 62 

3.7 Research Quality ................................................................................................................. 63 

3.7.1 Validity ........................................................................................................................ 63 

3.7.2 Reliability Tests ........................................................................................................... 64 

3.7.3 Reliability Analysis ...................................................................................................... 65 

3.8 Data Processing and Analysis ............................................................................................. 66 

3.8.1 Assumptions Check ..................................................................................................... 67 



6 

 

3.9 Ethical Issues in Research ................................................................................................... 68 

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 69 

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 69 

4.2 Response Rate ..................................................................................................................... 69 

4.3 Demographic Data .............................................................................................................. 69 

4.3.1 Gender Distribution of Respondents ............................................................................ 70 

4.3.2 Respondents Age Bracket ............................................................................................ 71 

4.3.3 Respondents education levels ...................................................................................... 72 

4.3.4 Households’ sources of cooking fuel ........................................................................... 73 

4.3.5 Sources of lighting fuel ................................................................................................ 74 

4.3.6. Off-grid connectivity .................................................................................................. 74 

4.4 Variables of the study ......................................................................................................... 75 

4.4.1 Socioeconomic factors ................................................................................................. 76 

4.4.2. Environmental concern ............................................................................................... 77 

4.4.3 Psychosocial factors ..................................................................................................... 79 

4.4.4 Technological factors ................................................................................................... 81 

4.4.5 Adoption of off grid renewable energy technologies .................................................. 82 

4.5 Regression analysis ............................................................................................................. 83 

4.5.1 Test absence of influential outliers .............................................................................. 84 

4.5.2 Normality test............................................................................................................... 84 



7 

 

4.5.3 Multicollinearity .......................................................................................................... 85 

4.5.4 Homogeneity of Variance ............................................................................................ 86 

4.6 Regression coefficients for predictors of adoption of OGRET .......................................... 87 

CHAPTER FIVE 92 

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................. 92 

5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 92 

5.2 Summary of the Findings .................................................................................................... 92 

5.3 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 94 

5.4 Implications of Study and Recommendations .................................................................... 95 

5.4.1 Implications.................................................................................................................. 95 

5.4.2 Policy recommendation ............................................................................................... 96 

5.5 Areas for Further Research ................................................................................................. 98 

REFERENCES 99 

APPENDICES 109 

Appendix I: Letter of Introduction .......................................................................................... 109 

Appendix II: Questionnaire..................................................................................................... 110 

Appendix III: Introduction Letter ........................................................................................... 116 

Appendix IV: Ethics Approval ............................................................................................... 117 

Appendix V: Nacosti License ................................................................................................. 118 

 

 

  



8 

 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 2.1: Summary of the Literature Reviewed………………………………...41-51  

Table 2.2: Operationalization of study variables……………………………….....55 

Table 3.1: Sample size of study…………………………….……………………...59 

Table 3.2: Summary of Reliability Analysis ………………………………………66 

Table 4.1: Gender of respondents …………………………………………………70 

Table 4.2: Age bracket of respondents ……………………………………………71 

Table 4.3: Education levels of the respondents ……...……………………………72 

Table 4.4: Sources of households’ cooking fuel ……..…………………………...73 

Table 4.5: Sources of lighting fuel …………………..……………………………74 

Table 4.6: Off-grid connectivity …………………….……………………………75 

Table 4.7: Socioeconomic factors …………………...……………………………76 

Table 4.8: Environmental conciderations……………..…………………………..78 

Table 4.9: Psychosocial factors …………………….……………………………..79 

Table 4.10: Technological factors …………………...……………………………81  

Table 4.11: Adoption of off grid renewable energy technologies …………….......82 

Table 4.12: Variance Inflation Factors ……………………………………………86 

Table 4.13: Breusch-Pagan (BP) …………………….……………………………87 

Table 4.14: Model summary for predicting the study variables ………………......87 

Table 4.15: Analysis of variance …………………….……………………………88 

Table 4.16: Regression model ……………………….……………………………89 

  



9 

 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1.1: Regional access deficits ..............…………………………………. 2 

Figure 2.1: Technology acceptance model …...……………………………… 19 

Figure 2.2: Conceptual framework ……………………………………………52 

Figure 4.1: Box plots…………………………………………………………...84 

Figure 4.2: Normality test………………………………………………………85 

 
 



10 

 

 ABBREVIATIONS 

BIPV     Building Integrated Photovoltaics. 

EU    European Union. 

GHG     Greenhouse Gas. 

GWh     Gigawatt hours. 

KIHBS   Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey. 

KNBS    Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 

OGRET    Off-Grid Renewable Energy Technology. 

PEOU     Perceived Ease of Use. 

PU     Perceived Usefulness. 

RE     Renewable Energy. 

REREC    Rural Electrification and Renewable Energy Corporation. 

SDG     Sustainable Development Goal. 

SETA    Sustainable Energy Technical Assistance. 

SSA    Sub-Saharan Africa. 

TAM     Technology Acceptance Model. 

 

  



11 

 

ABSTRACT 

Developing resilient energy systems is imperative for enhancing electricity accessibility, 

mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, and improving the welfare of residents in remote areas. 

However, many Sub-Saharan Africa countries with inadequate national power distribution systems 

often overlook energy provision in remote settlements due to their geographical isolation, low 

electricity demand, and limited financial resources. This study addresses the critical factors 

surrounding the low uptake of Off-Grid Renewable Energy Technologies (OGRETs) in Kisii 

County, Kenya, aiming to assess the constraints households face in adopting these technologies. 

Anchored in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Diffusion of Innovation theory, 

the research investigates how technological characteristics, socioeconomic conditions, 

environmental considerations, and psychosocial factors influence the adoption of OGRETs. The 

study is aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) and aims to contribute to meet the 

Kenya's Vision 2030 and climate change agenda by tackling the slow progress towards universal 

energy access. Utilizing a cross-sectional survey employing structured questionnaires 

incorporating the TAM framework with Likert scale responses, data were collected from a sample 

of 400 households. Analysis involved inferential statistics and a multiple regression. The findings 

highlight environmental concerns as a significant driver of adoption, with higher levels of concern 

positively associated with increased adoption. Additionally, risk and trust, awareness levels, 

relative advantage, and ease of use displayed significant positive associations. However, initial 

cost and financial incentives showed minimal impact. Policymakers should prioritize 

implementing targeted financial incentives and support mechanisms, alongside comprehensive 

awareness campaigns, to promote OGRET adoption in Kisii County, Kenya. 

Keywords (Energy access barriers, renewable energy adoption, renewable energy technologies, 

off-grid, Technology Acceptance Model, sustainable energy, energy access) 

 



1 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE 

1.1 Introduction. 

This chapter establishes the essential groundwork for the study by first exploring its 

background and delving into the energy scenario in Kenya. It introduces the problem 

statement, highlighting core issues within the energy sector, which in turn informs the 

research objectives and shapes the formulation of research questions. Furthermore, this 

section outlines the study's scope and significance, elucidating its potential impact and 

contributions. 

1.1.1 Background of the Study. 

Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7), a cornerstone of the 2030 Agenda, underscores 

the urgent need to achieve "affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all" by 

the end of the year 2030. The SDG7 aims to ensure everyone has access to electricity and 

enjoys availability of clean cooking solutions, increase the utilization of Renewable Energy 

(RE) sources, enhance community energy efficiency practices, and foster international 

collaboration to bolster clean energy initiatives. When a country enjoys sustainable 

electricity production, it acts as a catalyst in meeting the other international developments 

initiatives thus it plays a pivotal role in providing jobs, spurring economic development, 

ensuring peaceful coexistence, and advancing the availability of various developmental 

programs for women (Bukari et al., 2021; SDG, 2020).  

Despite significant global advancements in electrification, evidenced by a reduction where 

the numbers of households who do not have electricity were about1.15 billion as at the year 



2 

 

2010 and they reduced to 755 million in the year 2019, there still exist regional disparities 

(Figure 1). Asia has played a significant role in driving improvements, notably reducing its 

un-electrified population. However, Africa, marked by a rapidly growing population, has 

experienced only marginal progress. The 2023 Tracking SDG7 Report underscores the 

distinctive challenge of insufficient access of clean energy in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) 

mostly in rural places, which constitutes 75% of the rural population globally. This challenge 

requires special attention to meet the SDG7 by 2030 (S. C. Bhattacharyya & Palit, 2021; 

International Energy Agency, 2023). 

Figure 1: Regional access deficits (in millions of people without access) for 2010, 2017, and 

2019 

 
Source of Data: World Bank, 2021.  

 

On a global scale, sub-Saharan Africa encompasses 75 percent when looking at the entire 

population lacking access to electricity. Figure 1 illustrates that the region's deficit in access 

has risen from 556 million individuals in the year 2010 to about 570 million in the year 2019. 

Notably, while the overall statistics of individuals lacking electricity increased in sub-

Saharan Africa, growing from 33 percent as at 2010 to about 46 percent in the year 2019, 

440

185

103

556 574 570

91
45 40

67 49 46

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Y-2010 Y-2017 Y-2019

Millions of people 
without acess

Year

Regional Access Deficits 

Central Asia and South Asia

Sub-Saharan Africa

Eastern Asia and South-Eastern
Asia

Rest of the World



3 

 

the proportion has decreased due to quick population expansion. This suggests that 

electrification efforts are struggling to keep pace with the expanding population, particularly 

evident in countries like Malawi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Nigeria. In Mali 

and Kenya, advancements in electrification have outperformed their annual population 

growth.  

Sub-Saharan Africa faces distinctive challenges in achieving SDG7. In terms of clean 

cooking access, Sub-Saharan Africa faces persistent hurdles. As of 2021, approximately 900 

million people coming from the region lack access to clean cooking facilities. Stagnation in 

progress since 2010 poses a critical challenge, leading to severe health implications, 

including millions of deaths annually due to exposure to cooking smoke. Without urgent and 

substantial interventions, the region is poised to fall significantly short of its clean cooking 

target by 2030. In a 2011 study, the International Energy Agency (IEA) highlighted the 

efficacy of grid expansion for urban areas and around 30% of rural regions without electricity 

access. However, the remaining 70% of un-electrified rural areas are deemed more suitable 

for off-grid systems. The IEA further estimates that to achieve universal energy access by 

2030, decentralized systems should cater to approximately 43% of the un-electrified 

population (International Energy Agency, 2019). 

Kenya, positioned in East Africa, stands at the intersection of progress and challenges in the 

pursuit of SDG7 targets. The electrification landscape has witnessed significant 

advancements, with the number of households and businesses lacking access to electricity 

decreasing from about 16 million as at 2010 to about 9 million by the year 2021. However, 

County based disparities persist, revealing that approximately 27% of the households and 

businesses still lack access to this crucial electricity and this could be contributed by a 



4 

 

number of issues such as geographical remoteness, economic constraints, and infrastructural 

limitations, particularly in rural areas. 

1.1.2 Factors Influencing Adoption of Off Grid Renewable Energy Technologies  

The progress of renewable energy in different countries globally relies on both the factors 

that encourage its growth and those that hinder it. As per Li et al., (2020), multiple factors, 

encompassing legal, physical, and psychological aspects, shape the adoption of renewable 

energy. 

Costs pose the most formidable challenges to the widespread adoption of renewable energy. 

The costs, linked to the development of renewable energy, encompass the construction and 

installation of facilities (Board, 2020). For instance, while solar and wind energy sources are 

cost-effective due to utilizing free resources like sunlight and wind, the bulk of expenses 

arise during the initial installation stages. These high initial costs for renewable energy 

adversely impact consumer perceptions, resulting in a sluggish uptake of these new 

technologies. Similarly, financial institutions interested in financing renewable energy 

development may view such ventures as risky, thereby imposing higher lending rates on 

developers in this sector. 

Energy derived from fossil fuels is disreputable for its detrimental environmental effects, 

notably the emission of greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Environmental 

considerations significantly influence both the production and adoption of renewable energy, 

which stands as an alternative to fossil fuels in environmental preservation. Renewable 

energy emits 99% fewer greenhouse gases compared to energy sourced from traditional coal 

and oil. The utilization of renewable energy plays a pivotal role in environmental 

conservation by mitigating global warming and, consequently, addressing climate change. 



5 

 

Heightened environmental awareness fosters a positive impact on the adoption and 

utilization of renewable energy (Wall et al., 2021). 

Trust and risk serve as crucial considerations when investing in renewable energy 

infrastructure. RE utilization is susceptible to fluctuations in power prices and other risks 

inherent in renewable energy, thereby impacting its adoption. Wall et al., (2021) asserts that 

investment in renewable energy continues to experience robust growth; however, such 

investment is contingent upon various risks associated with renewable energy. For example, 

political and regulatory risks that influence the progression of renewable energy projects 

affect the investment rates within the country, consequently affecting the pace of renewable 

energy adoption. 

The adoption of renewable energy entails a multifaceted process that often demands 

streamlining various procedures to ensure sustainability and enhance ease of use. Consumer 

acceptance of new renewable technologies hinges on the simplicity of renewable energy 

utilization.  

Financial incentives also serve as pivotal drivers in promoting and facilitating the global 

adoption of renewable energy. Governments, aiming to foster sustainable growth through 

renewable energy uptake, leverage financial incentives to address barriers hindering its 

development. These incentives, for instance, help alleviate the high initial installation costs 

associated with renewable energy infrastructure. Additionally, the relative advantage in 

technology, measured in terms of convenience, satisfaction, economic benefits, and social 

prestige, determines the competitiveness of renewable energy against traditional fossil fuels 

and their installations. As societal awareness regarding climate change effects grows, so does 

the social inclination toward adopting green energy solutions. Consequently, ensuring 



6 

 

environmental sustainability emerges as a relative advantage in favor of renewable energy 

adoption over traditional fossil fuel alternatives (Bulut et al., 2021; Idzikowski & Cierlicki, 

2021). 

1.1.3 Kenya Energy Scenario 

Kenya has positioned itself as a frontrunner in the adoption of renewable energy, with an 

impressive 85% of its electricity supply sourced from RE sources as at the year 2021, 

surpassing the global target outlined in SDG7. This underscores the nation's unwavering 

commitment to sustainable energy practices, particularly evident through the availability of 

various collaborative initiatives. Despite these strides, a persistent challenge persists in the 

domain of clean cooking, where an alarming 80% of the population relies on traditional 

biomass. Urgent intervention is imperative, given the stagnant progress in clean cooking 

since 2010, posing severe health risks such as millions of annual deaths attributable to 

exposure to cooking smoke (Liu et al., 2020).  

The primary influence on Kenya's energy market stems from the synergy of oil and electric 

power. Wood, employed as a cooking fuel source, caters to the fundamental energy needs of 

remote homes, the poor households in the urban places, and the informal producers of 

various products. The government's commitment to clean cooking is underscored by recent 

legislative actions, including the Finance Act, 2021, which reinstated essential VAT 

exemptions on renewable energy items. This commitment aligns with clean cooking solution 

providers, manufacturers, and governmental agencies dedicated to ensuring clean energy 

access for all. The focus on clean cooking contributes to health, safety, and environmental 

sustainability, reflecting a holistic approach to energy development in Kenya.  



7 

 

According to international standards, Kenya's energy consumption remained relatively 

modest in 2022. The total electricity generation for the year reached 12,669 GWh, in 2022 

marking a notable increase from the 2017 figure of 10,360 GWh. This represents a growth 

of approximately 22.6 percent as reported in the Economic Survey of 2023. Hydro-generated 

power experienced an increase of 9.5 percent from 2,776.6 GWh in the year 2017 to 3,039.9 

GWh in 2022. Solar power generation also witnessed a noteworthy rise, escalating from 0.30 

GWh in the year 2017 to 383.7 GWh in the year 2022, largely attributed to the contribution 

of the 50MW produced at Garissa Solar Power plant that is managed by Rural Electrification 

and Renewable Energy Corporation (REREC), commissioning of Alten Solar Power plant, 

and the full Operationalization of Selenkei, Cedate and Malindi Solar plants. Wind power 

generation saw a significant boost from 60.98 GWh in 2017 to 2,143.0 GWh in 2022 driven 

by the contribution of Lake Turkana Wind Power Plant. Additionally, geothermal power 

generation increased by 25.6 percent reaching 1,584.9 GWh in 2022. Since 2017, the annual 

energy output in Kenya has shown a consistent increase of around 5% each year. However, 

during the 2019/2020 financial year, there was a slight decline of 0.25% attributed to the 

impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (KNBS, 2023). 

Domestic demand for electricity also showed an upward trend, climbing from 8,410.1 GWh 

in the year 2016 to 12,985.4 GWh in the year 2022. Supply to various domestic and those 

regarded as small commercial users increased from about 3,528 GWh to an estimate of 

4,291.5 GWh during 2016-2022 (KNBS, 2023). The survey report done in the year 2016 

revealed that the use of firewood, usage of LPG, and the use of charcoal continue to be the 

primary sources of cooking energy where, firewood accounted for 54.6 percent LPG 

accounted for 13.4 percent while charcoal accounted for 14.6 percent of total households. 



8 

 

Notably, the over reliance on firewood as cooking fuel was common in rural places where 

about 84 percent of the country households use it (KIHBS, 2020) 

Remarkably, 85 percent of Kenya's electricity is created from RE sources, with geothermal 

and hydro power contributing significantly at 45.4 percent and 19.3 percent respectively. In 

contrast, 10.5 percent is derived from non-renewable thermal sources. This widespread 

electricity generation is accessible to over 74 percent of the country's people, with less than 

25 percent deprived of access to electricity. Consequently, some individuals, particularly in 

rural areas, still rely on charcoal or firewood as their primary sources of energy. Captive 

generation, which refers to self-produced energy for personal use, saw a significant uptick 

to 402.3MW between 2022 and 2023, driven by heightened interest from commercial and 

industrial consumers representing 10.83% of the total installed capacity. Solar photovoltaic 

generation emerged as the top choice, accounting for 38.5% of the total installed captive 

capacity, closely followed by bioenergy (including biomass, bagasse, and biogas) and waste 

heat recovery generation, at 26.3% and 20.7% respectively. Noteworthy is the waste heat 

recovery plant at Devki Steel Mills in Kwale County, boasting a capacity of 55 MW, making 

it the largest captive generation facility in the region (EPRA, 2023). 

Kenya's entrepreneurial landscape has witnessed the emergence of dynamic energy start-

ups, each contributing uniquely to the renewable energy ecosystem. M-kopa, for instance, 

provides affordable energy solutions through a flexible micro-payment model, gradually 

increasing consumers' ownership over time. Strauss Electricity focuses on "pay as you go" 

solutions and advocates for Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) systems, while 

PowerGen Renewable Energy specializes in installing off-grid power systems. Vuma 

Biofuels stands out by converting agricultural waste into renewable energy, aiming to stop 



9 

 

the employment of firewood in the industrial production division (Otieno et al., 2018; 

Rastogi, 2018; Williams et al., 2017). 

The rationale behind choosing Kisii County as a focal point for renewable energy research 

stems from several key factors. With a population of approximately 1.27 million residents 

in 2019 and projected growth, Kisii County presents a significant energy demand that 

necessitates attention (County government of Kisii, 2022). This burgeoning population 

underscores the importance of exploring sustainable energy solutions to meet the rising 

demand for electricity and other energy services. Moreover, Kisii County's strategic location 

within the Western/Nyanza region positions it as a vital business hub, offering ample 

opportunities for renewable energy investments and collaborations with local businesses and 

entrepreneurs. 

The diverse landscape of Kisii County, which includes the presence of  Gucha River and its 

waterfalls, presents promising prospects for renewable energy generation, particularly in the 

form of mini-hydroelectric power (County government of Kisii, 2022). The abundance of 

natural resources in the region provides an opportunity to harness renewable energy and 

contribute to the county's energy mix while potentially supplying surplus electricity to the 

national grid. Additionally, Kisii County's favorable environment for solar photovoltaic (PV) 

and wind energy projects further enhances its suitability for renewable energy investments. 

The region's ample sunlight and wind resources make it viable for solar and wind energy 

generation, aligning with efforts to transition towards cleaner and more sustainable energy 

sources. 

Furthermore, Kisii County's significant agricultural sector, which contributes 21.0% to the 

GDP, presents opportunities for biogas investments derived from agricultural waste (County 



10 

 

government of Kisii, 2022). Biogas production offers a renewable energy solution that not 

only addresses energy needs but also supports rural farmers and promotes sustainable 

agricultural practices. By focusing on Kisii County, researchers can gain valuable insights 

into the challenges and opportunities of renewable energy adoption in a diverse socio-

economic and geographical context. This research has the potential to inform policy 

decisions and investment strategies aimed at advancing renewable energy initiatives and 

contributing to the county's sustainable development goals (County government of Kisii, 

2022). 

In 2019, the lighting fuel landscape in Kisii County revealed that electricity was the 

dominant lighting source, constituting 39.3% of the total. Paraffin pressure lamps were 

minimal at 0.4%, while paraffin lanterns accounted for 13.6%, and paraffin tin lamps 

represented 20.1% of the lighting sources. Solar lighting solutions gained prominence, 

reaching 20.5%, indicating a growing preference for sustainable and renewable alternatives. 

This snapshot of the lighting fuel status in 2019 highlights the diverse sources used for 

lighting in the county, with a notable reliance on main grid electricity and an increasing 

adoption of solar solutions (KNBS, 2019b). 

In Kisii County, cooking fuel sources present a concerning scenario, as indicated by the 

Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey (KIHBS) in 2016 and the 2019 population and 

housing census. Firewood remains the predominant choice, with approximately 77.8% of 

households relying on it for cooking. However, there has been a notable increase in the 

popularity of Gas (LPG), constituting 13.5% of cooking fuel sources in 2019. Charcoal use 

has declined to 5.5%. Despite this shift, electricity and biogas remain limited sources of 

cooking fuel. Women and children in rural areas bear the primary responsibility of gathering 



11 

 

firewood and crop residues, exposing them to indoor air pollution and associated health risks 

when cooking three meals a day using resources such as wood and biomass-related products 

(Baland et al., 2010).  

OGRETs are independent power projects with connected purposes that function 

autonomously devoid of being connected to the main national grid (Mugisha et al., 2021). 

They are often more appropriate sources of power where the main national grid connectivity 

misses to reach. OGRETs in Kenya mainly depend on the utilization of RE sources like 

wind, solar from the sun, biomass sources, and hydro to provide power to areas which lack 

the national power main grid. The key objective is to bring clean and sustainable energy 

solutions to remote and underserved communities, improving access to electricity and 

promoting economic development (Mugisha et al., 2021).  

OGRETs in Kenya often involve the installation of various types of solar panels, wind 

turbines, small hydroelectric plants, and biogas digesters to generate power locally (Roche 

& Blanchard, 2018).The systems are critical in addressing energy poverty, lowering 

greenhouse gas emissions, and improving energy resilience in areas with challenges of grid 

connectivity.  

Among the crucial initiatives to enhance clean energy access, the Rural Electrification and 

Renewable Energy Corporation (REREC) was established to fulfill the mandates of the 

Kenya's Energy Act, 2019, succeeding the Rural Electrification Authority (REA) and 

expanding its scope. With an expanded mandate, REREC oversaw rural electrification 

programs and led Kenya's renewable energy initiatives, administering funds, drafting master 

plans, and supporting energy centers in counties. In Kisii County, the REREC Energy Centre 

served as a vital platform for demonstrating various renewable energy technologies, 



12 

 

including agro-forestry practices, biogas production, solar energy applications, and 

improved cooking stoves. By showcasing these technologies, the Energy Centre aimed to 

raise awareness, educate communities, and promote the adoption of sustainable energy 

solutions, contributing to local development, environmental conservation, and improved 

power availability in Kisii County (Takase et al., 2021).  

Despite the efforts to enhance access to electricity, there are still remote and marginalized 

communities that lack access to these services because of inadequate infrastructure, 

affordability changes, and geographical barrier (Aemro et al., 2020). Jeuland et al. (2023) 

highlighted challenges in extending infrastructure such as roads and markets due to the 

region's low population density and challenging terrain. Additionally, Lestari et al. (2018) 

emphasized that the anticipated low levels of consumption and poverty prevalent in rural 

areas render investments in grid connections highly impractical. Off-grid renewable systems 

are economically viable options to offer larger access to electricity energy (Weinand et al., 

2023). OGRET adoption reduces poverty, enhances low-carbon access, and diversifies 

livelihoods away from highly vulnerable climate change (Sen & Ganguly, 2017). The usage 

of RE resources has the potential to lower greenhouse gas emissions, protect the community 

from increasing diesel and petrol prices, and provision for increased access to the very useful 

resource called electricity (Backer et al., 2023).  

In Kenya, the issues of off-grid renewable energy are fairly explored (Mugisha et al., 2021; 

Sergi et al., 2018; Ulsrud et al., 2015) mainly to provide a deeper understanding of the 

potential factors to assist people in remote areas in adopting off-grid renewable energy. This 

is crucial because Odhiambo Ponde et al., (2019) posits that not more than 5 percent of the 

rural population has access to electricity yet there is growing demand from both off-grid and 



13 

 

on-grid consumers. This is apparent from the frequent power outages and the increasing 

adoption of OGRETs alternatives, such as the use of diesel generators and the utilization of 

small-scale hydroelectric units in Kisii County, where energy regulation is inadequate.  

A number of studies predominantly focus in the realm of off-grid renewable energy on socio-

economic and socio-cultural aspects concerning consumers (Ahmed et al., 2022; Kumar et 

al., 2024; Tetteh & Kebir, 2022). However, there has been a notable gap in research, with 

limited attention given to the combined aspects involving both government 

managerial/regulatory and consumer perspectives in the context of OGRETs adoption. 

Studies in this domain have been scarce, leading to a lack of comprehensive insights into the 

key factors influencing the adoption of OGRETs in rural areas (Moran et al., 2022; Simpson 

et al., 2021). It is within this locus that our study aims to carry an assessment of the factors 

influencing the adoption of OGRETs in Kisii County. 

1.2 Problem Statement 

Kisii County grapples with a substantial challenge in meeting Sustainable Development Goal 

7 (SDG7), embedded in Kenya's Vision 2030 and Climate Change Agenda. Despite the 

institutional frameworks in place, progress toward achieving universal access to energy that 

is affordable to everyone, reliable to everyone, sustainable to the environment, and enjoy 

modern forms of energy by 2030 is slow within the county. OGRET has been recognized as 

an efficient innovation for people in rural areas to solve issues related to the occurrences of 

these related incidents (Aemro et al., 2020; Kitson et al., 2018). The existing gaps in the 

OGRETs contribute to over reliance on environmentally harmful and non-renewable energy 

sources, particularly firewood, and an over-dependence on the main electricity grid for 

lighting. 



14 

 

KIHBS 2015/2016 report show that about 77.8% of households in Kisii County primarily 

relied on firewood for cooking, contributing to deforestation, respiratory infections, and 

environmental degradation. Simultaneously, dependence on the main electricity grid for 

lighting faced challenges like persistent blackouts, expensive extension to remote areas, high 

connection costs, and unaffordable electricity bills for most residents. Factors such as low 

energy demand, costly grid extension, limited industrialization, rough terrain, and low 

economic activities compounded these obstacles (Longe et al., 2013). Addressing these 

challenges, OGRETs sources emerge as a viable alternative for comprehensive 

electrification (Ugwoke et al., 2021). Kisii County possesses untapped natural RE resources 

such as those from solar, those from wind, and those from biomass, providing feasible 

alternatives. The appeal of renewable energy sources compared to fossil fuels is enhanced 

by their competitive edge, fueled by fluctuating petroleum pricing and the urgent need to 

mitigate Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions (Aliyu & Tekbiyik-Ersoy, 2019). Despite these 

opportunities, there are a few studies examining factors influencing adoption off-grid 

renewable energy technology in Kisii County. 

The adoption of Off-Grid Renewable Energy Technologies (OGRETs) hinges on various 

influential factors that shape consumer behavior and decision-making processes. Among 

these factors, the initial cost emerges as a pivotal determinant, influencing perceptions of 

affordability and investment feasibility. Complementing this, financial incentives play a 

crucial role, alleviating upfront expenses and enhancing long-term cost-effectiveness. 

Moreover, heightened environmental consciousness propels demand for cleaner, renewable 

energy options, underlining the significance of environmental considerations in consumer 

choices. Concurrently, awareness levels within communities directly impact adoption rates, 



15 

 

with increased knowledge often correlating with higher uptake of OGRETs. Additionally, 

factors such as perceived risk, trust, relative advantages compared to conventional energy 

sources, and ease of use further influence consumer decisions, collectively shaping the 

trajectory of OGRET adoption (Khalid et al., 2021; Luthra et al., 2015; A. Palm, 2020; Zeng 

et al., 2022).  

This study aims to uncover the factors contributing to the sluggish progress in SDG7 

attainment within Kisii County. By examining factors influencing the adoption of OGRETs 

and underlining the untapped potential of natural resources, the research seeks to offer 

actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders. Addressing these challenges is not 

only vital for aligning with national and global sustainability goals but also for mitigating 

environmental impacts, enhancing energy resilience, and improving the overall well-being 

of Kisii County residents. 

1.3 Objectives of the Study 

The main objective of this study is to assess the factors influencing adoption of off-grid 

renewable energy technologies in Kisii County. The specific objectives are to: 

i. To ascertain the extent to which socioeconomic factors influence adoption of off-

grid renewable energy technologies in Kisii County. 

ii. To explore the influence of environmental considerations on adoption of off-grid 

renewable energy technologies in Kisii County. 

iii. To establish the influence of psychosocial factors on adoption of off-grid 

renewable energy technologies in Kisii County. 

iv. To evaluate the influence of technological factors on adoption of off-grid 

renewable energy technologies in Kisii County. 



16 

 

1.4 Research Questions 

The following research questions will guide this: 

i. To what extent do socioeconomic factors influence the adoption of off-grid 

renewable energy technologies in Kisii County? 

ii. What is the influence of environmental considerations on adoption of off-grid 

renewable energy technologies in Kisii County? 

iii. How do psychosocial factors affect the adoption of off-grid renewable energy 

technologies in Kisii County? 

iv. Which technological factors influence the adoption of off-grid renewable energy 

technologies in Kisii County? 

1.5 Scope of the Study 

The scope of this study is to assess the factors influencing adoption of OGRETs in Kisii 

County, Kenya. The study will focus on understanding the perceptions, attitudes, and 

behavioral intentions of households toward adopting renewable energy technologies for 

cooking and lighting. 

Key components of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), such as perceived ease of use 

which is a core component and another variable termed as perceived usefulness, will be 

analyzed to assess how these factors impact the willingness of individuals in Kisii County to 

embrace off-grid renewable energy technologies. Additionally, the study will consider 

external variables, including socio-economic factors, awareness, and accessibility, to 

provide a holistic view of the factors shaping technology acceptance. 



17 

 

1.6 Significance of the Study 

This study is of paramount importance as it sought to address critical energy challenges faced 

by Kisii County households, by employing the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and 

the Diffusion of innovation theory to assess the factors influencing the adoption of OGRETs. 

Aligned with the Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7), which emphasizes universal 

accessibility to reasonable, dependable, and contemporary energy, the research contributes 

to broader efforts in achieving sustainable development. By uncovering the factors 

influencing the uptake of OGRETs, the study aimed to facilitate the transition toward cleaner 

and more sustainable energy sources, thus promoting environmental conservation.  

The outcomes of the study can inform policymakers at the county and national government, 

in the formulation of effective policies, incentives, and regulatory frameworks to encourage 

widespread adoption of off-grid renewable energy. Ultimately, the study's significance lies 

in its potential to drive sustainable energy practices, improve energy access, and contribute 

to the overall well-being of residents in Kisii County. In addition, the study will also serve 

as a foundation for future research on the adoption of renewable energy in rural areas, 

particularly in developing countries. 

 

 

  



18 

 

CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.1 Introduction 

This chapter offers a literature review on the adoption and development of OGRETs. The 

initial section provided a theoretical review and discussed the significance of RE for 

sustainable development. The subsequent sections examine existing empirical literature on 

factors influencing the adoption of OGRETs, barriers to adoption, and strategies for 

promoting uptake of OGRETs. 

2.2 Theoretical Review 

The theoretical examination establishes a conceptual basis for comprehending the adoption 

of OGRE technologies within Kisii County. Within this segment, we employ the Technology 

Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Diffusion of Innovation theory.  

2.2.1 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) 

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) serves as a well detailed theoretical framework 

for the assessment of the constraints of households’ adoption of OGRETs. Originating in the 

late 1980s, TAM, as conceived by Davis, (1989) has evolved into a resourceful tool for 

understanding user behavior across various technological contexts. At its core, TAM posits 

that adopter’s behavioral intention to embrace a new technology is shaped by how they take 

their perceptions in terms of its Perceived Usefulness (PU) and another key factor that it 

notes is its Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU). These perceptions, in turn, influence users' 

subsequent actions, such as their intent to employ the existing technology and the real 

utilization of the system. PU represents the level that explains how users believe that 

incorporating a specific technology into their routines finally will enhance their job 



19 

 

performance or overall effectiveness. Factors influencing PU include considerations of job 

relevance, the anticipated impact on performance, and the demonstrability of positive results 

from using the technology. 

Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) encapsulates users' beliefs regarding the effortlessness of 

interacting with technology. This involves assessments of how easily users can learn and 

become proficient in using the technology, the overall simplicity and user-friendliness of the 

system, and the compatibility of the technology with existing practices. 

Figure 2.1, depicting the TAM, illustrates that an individual's utilization of a technologies 

system is either directly or indirectly influenced by their behavioral intentions, as well as 

attitude, also it’s influenced by Perceived Usefulness, and Perceived Ease of Use of the 

system. TAM further posits that external factors impact intention and actual usage by 

indirectly affecting perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use through mediated effects. 

Figure 2.1: Technology acceptance model 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Davis, (1989) 

External 

Variables 

Perceived 

Usefulness 

Perceived 

Ease of Use 

Attitude 

Towards 

Behavioral 

Intention to 

Use 

Actual USE 



20 

 

The objectives of our study are intricately linked to TAM's constructs, notably the influence 

of technological characteristics, economic factors, environmental considerations, and 

psychosocial factors on the adoption of OGRETs. 

Firstly, our exploration of innovation characteristics, specifically the ease of use and relative 

advantage of OGRETs, corresponds directly to TAM's components of PEOU and PU. 

Assessing economic factors, such as initial cost and financial incentives, resonates with 

TAM's examination of PEOU and the tangible benefits users anticipate from adopting a 

particular technology. 

Moreover, our investigation into environmental considerations, including environmental 

concern and relative advantage, mirrors TAM's exploration of users' perceptions regarding 

the impact of the technology on the natural environment and its perceived superiority over 

existing alternatives. Lastly, our exploration of psychosocial factors, encompassing risk and 

trust, as well as awareness, closely aligns with TAM's emphasis on the influence of 

individual perceptions and attitudes on technology adoption. 

2.2.2 Diffusion of Innovation Theory 

The Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory elucidates the process by which a society 

embraces and spreads novel ideas. The theory identifies distinct groups, including 

innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards, each playing a role in 

the adoption of innovations. Innovators, who are early adopters, lead the way, while laggards 

adopt later. The DOI theory asserts that various factors, including innovation characteristics, 

adopter traits, and communication channels, collectively determine the pace of innovation 

adoption (Rogers, 2003). 



21 

 

The theory posits that an innovation's compatibility with prevailing values and beliefs 

influences its adoption; incompatible innovations face more resistance. Applying the DOI 

theory to Kisii County, it becomes a valuable tool for comprehending the factors shaping the 

adoption of OGRE systems among different societal segments. Factors like education, 

income, and awareness of renewable energy benefits may sway early adopters. Meanwhile, 

the majority groups might consider factors such as affordability, financing options, and 

institutional support. Laggards, on the other hand, may be influenced by issues like lack of 

awareness or resistance to change (Rogers, 2003). 

The combination of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Diffusion of 

Innovation (DOI) theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and 

predicting the adoption of Off-Grid Renewable Energy Technologies (OGRETs) in Kisii 

County. TAM offers insights into individual perceptions and attitudes towards technology, 

emphasizing factors such as perceived ease of use, usefulness, and compatibility with 

existing beliefs. Meanwhile, DOI theory elucidates the societal dynamics surrounding 

innovation adoption, highlighting the roles of different adopter groups and factors 

influencing their decisions. By integrating these theories, our study aims to analyze the 

interplay between individual and societal factors in shaping the adoption of OGRETs. 

2.3 Empirical Review 

This section examines empirical research that has looked into the adoption of OGRETs in a 

variety of settings. These studies provide an understanding regarding adoption of OGRETs, 

as well as the potential impacts of these systems on households, businesses, and the 

environment. 



22 

 

2.3.1 Socioeconomic factors 

Subhes C. Bhattacharyya, (2014) noted that economic barriers involve challenges related to 

the unattainable initial costs of RE products, increased transacting costs for fuel in far to 

reach areas, and the absence of government subsidies. The electrification of rural zones with 

RE sources typically necessitates government subsidies due to the substantial capital 

investment required. However, government incentives in the renewable energy sector are 

comparatively limited when contrasted with the highly subsidized agricultural domain. 

Alam Hossain Mondal et al., (2010) conducted a detailed review of RE technologies 

implementation in rural areas of Bangladesh, emphasizing the critical analysis of policy and 

institutional settings. The research aimed to discern the drivers, barriers, and strategies 

influencing the adoption of RETs. A notable pattern emerged as successive projects 

demonstrated a keen understanding of local conditions, including demand patterns, existing 

knowledge, and financial situations. These initiatives successfully implemented tailored 

financial mechanisms, training programs, and income-generating opportunities to address 

the specific needs of each community. However, a significant gap in the study is that the 

findings cannot be applicable to Kisii County due to differences in research settings and 

contexts.  

Billanes & Enevoldsen, (2021) extensively reviewed literature to identify key factors which 

influence persons’ decisions in considering accepting technologies by incorporating the 

TAM into their research framework. The study highlighted ten influential factors, including 

understanding, consciousness, regulations, societal impact, population characteristics, 

confidence in oneself, reliability, satisfaction, perceived danger, and harmony, which 

collectively contribute to users' choices in embracing technology. Despite the comprehensive 



23 

 

coverage of various technologies, including renewable energy technology, the study's use of 

TAM suggests a valuable framework for understanding the specific dynamics and 

determinants of individuals' decisions in adopting renewable energy technologies. While 

TAM provides a solid foundation, further exploration within the realm of renewable energy 

adoption could shed light on domain-specific factors that might influence users' acceptance 

and utilization of these technologies in Kisii County. 

Takase et al., (2021) conducted a comprehensive review in 2021, examining Kenya's energy 

scenario and sustainable energy practices. The study highlighted a surge in energy demand, 

driven by rapid population growth, leading to substantial expenditures on oil imports, with 

oil and electricity serving as key determinants of growing the countries’ economy. The 

energy output mix featured 52 percent from hydro, 33percent fossil sourced fuels, 13percent 

geothermal sourced energy, 2percent generated from biogas, and 0.4 percent wind sourced. 

Projections indicated a substantial increase in the existing energy demanded, reaching 2,600 

to about 3600 MW by the year 2020. Notably, the review underscored a noteworthy 

dependence on wood related products and biomass, constituting 68 percent of the energy in 

usage, particularly impacting rural, urban, and informal market areas. Challenges such as 

limited accessibility to modern energy, biomass supply pressures, escalating energy prices, 

and high electricity demand compared to generation capacity were identified. The study 

primarily focused on broader energy issues, and the gap lies in its failure to narrow its scope 

to specifically address off-grid renewable energy technologies. A more targeted exploration 

of off-grid solutions could contribute valuable insights to address the specific challenges and 

opportunities in this domain. 



24 

 

In the existing literature, economic and institutional factors have consistently emerged as 

key contributors to the limited adoption of solar PV systems (Rowlands, 2007). Our study 

aligns with this understanding, as financial considerations, characterized by higher initial 

starting costs and prolonged period to realize profits, along with the crucial role of 

institutional support such as Community Power Groups (CPGs). (Rivera & Rogers, 2006).  

Palm & Tengvard (2011) exploration of household motivations for adopting residential solar 

PV systems also emphasizes sustainability-related factors as primary drivers. Noteworthy 

barriers include financial constraints, site customization leading to increased costs, solar 

costs exceeding commercial and utility-scale alternatives, and substantial paperwork 

expenses. Education emerges as a pivotal barrier, with potential customers often lacking the 

necessary skills to assess the cost-effectiveness of solar solutions. Overcoming these 

challenges may be facilitated by improved access to financing options and a more effective 

sales approach, as exemplified by successful solar companies like Solmentum. 

Income levels and awareness were found to be major impediment to the usage of the 

recommended green energy products in a study carried in Shanghai by Vand et al., (2019)  

that examined customers' attitudes about green energy. This emphasizes how crucial it is to 

clarify the benefits of green energy products as a primary tactic for developing a green 

environment in China. Despite of the study having been done in China, there is a 

geographical divide in the knowledge of consumer attitudes and their acceptance of solar 

energy solutions. In particular, there is a paucity of study on the attitudes of consumers in 

Kisii County, Kenya, toward off-grid energy options. 

In Shahzad et al., (2023) study aimed to identify and rank the obstacles hindering the 

expansion of solar power in Pakistan to inform the development of suitable energy policies. 



25 

 

The methodology involved utilizing a novel spherical fuzzy analytical hierarchy process to 

assess and prioritize the identified obstacles. The findings indicated that economic obstacles 

were the most significant, constituting 21.46% of the total obstacles, with budget constraints, 

lack of access to credit/capital, political instability, high investment risk and operation cost, 

and partnership issues identified as the top five critical sub-obstacles. Recommendations 

were provided to address these obstacles, offering policy implications for policymakers, 

researchers, and practitioners involved in the solar sector in Pakistan. The study contributes 

to understanding the barriers to solar energy deployment in the country, offering insights for 

the development of strategies aimed at facilitating its smooth implementation. However, 

further research is needed to delve deeper into the effectiveness of proposed solutions and 

address any remaining gaps in understanding the challenges hindering solar energy adoption 

in Pakistan. 

Asante et al., (2020) investigated the impediments to renewable energy development, 

focusing on Ghana's target of integrating 10% other renewables into its energy mix by 2020. 

The study identified and ranked barriers across six categories, encompassing technical, 

economic and financial, social, political and regulatory, institutional, and geographical 

aspects. Employing the Multi-Objective Optimization based on Ratio Analysis 

(MULTIMOORA) integrated with Evaluation based on Distance from Average Solution 

(EDAS) method, the study ranked barriers and sub-barriers, highlighting political and 

regulatory barriers as the most significant. Corruption and nepotism emerged as critical 

hurdles within this category. The findings underscored the need for specific renewable 

energy standards, grid connection quotas, and streamlined certification procedures, 

advocating for a bottom-up approach to policy formulation for inclusiveness and 



26 

 

sustainability. Additionally, the study developed a framework to assess how each barrier 

affected renewable energy development. However, the research gap lay in further 

exploration of nuanced dynamics within each barrier category and their implications for 

effective policy implementation and sustainable renewable energy development. 

Gboney, (2009) aimed to identify the external support necessary to bolster Ghana's domestic 

policies, thereby overcoming barriers and facilitating the wider adoption of renewable 

energy and energy efficiency technologies. The study acknowledged Ghana's robust 

regulatory environment and institutional framework but underscored the need for 

international cooperation to enhance domestic policies and foster an enabling environment 

for renewable energy transition. It advocated for leveraging international support to bolster 

the activities of the Energy Foundation and energy service companies (ESCOs), as well as 

promoting the adoption of energy efficiency technologies through demand-side management 

(DSM) initiatives. The findings emphasized that despite financial incentives, regulatory 

barriers persisted, necessitating comprehensive government strategies and stakeholder 

collaboration to address them effectively. The study highlighted the role of international 

support in capacity building, technical assistance, and finance, emphasizing the importance 

of domestic and international structures for program continuity and execution. However, the 

research identified a gap in understanding the long-term sustainability of institutional 

resources for program implementation, calling for further exploration in this area. 

2.3.2 Environmental concerns 

Zeng et al., (2022) employed a systematic research framework and utilized structural 

equation modeling to examine the significant factors influencing how people accept 

OGRETs. The results indicated that environment related concerns, levels of awareness on 



27 

 

green energy technologies, candidness to new experiences, and perceived benefits of GETs 

positively influenced consumers' inclination to adopt these technologies. Conversely, 

variables such as the projected costs linked with green energy technologies and the 

discomfort associated with its adoption had a negative impact on consumer adoption. 

However, it's crucial to note that the findings may not be universally applicable to all 

settings, especially in the middle-income country like Kenya. The unique socio-economic, 

unique cultural, and infrastructural aspects of Kenya may introduce variations in consumer 

behavior and technology adoption dynamics, warranting further exploration in the Kisii 

County context. 

Nyarko et al., (2023) examined the catalysts and obstacles faced by OGREs initiatives in 

West Africa, utilizing a comprehensive framework that encompassed Political, Economic, 

Social, Technical, Legal, and Environmental dimensions (PESTLE challenges). Employing 

a blend of review and survey methodologies, the study revealed that economic hurdles posed 

the most significant impediments to the sustainable advancement of OGREs powered 

systems in West Africa. The results further unveiled intricate interconnections and patterns 

among these challenges, underscoring the necessity of considering the broader landscape 

rather than fixating solely on the most immediate issues. However, it's noteworthy that the 

research primarily concentrated on institutional hindrances and did not delve into the 

intricacies of consumer behavior, suggesting a potential gap in comprehending the factors 

influencing end-users in adopting off-grid renewable energy technologies. 

A number of studies suggest that the importance of environmental concerns is overshadowed 

by economic issues. Although they may not be the main factor taken into account when 

evaluating economic effects, environmental views may have a significant influence on the 



28 

 

adoption of solar technologies. Best & Chareunsy, (2022) found that, even after controlling 

for the green power variable, solar-panel-owning households in an Australian green power 

program had almost equal economic impacts. In general, early adopters may be more 

concerned about environmental issues (A. Palm, 2020).   

Empirical analysis faces the challenge of multiple factors contributing to solar-panel 

adoption. For instance, inner-city households in shaded, rented apartments are less likely to 

adopt solar panels Best & Chareunsy, (2022) especially if residents have lower education 

and wealth levels . Considering these correlated factors is crucial when isolating the impact 

of income. 

Bamati & Raoofi, (2020) conducted a comprehensive examination of the factors influencing 

renewable energy (RE) production, focusing on technological, economic, and environmental 

variables across developed and developing countries. Employing the Generalized Least 

Square (GLS) panel data estimation method, the study observed that the determinants of RE 

sources varied based on the income level of the countries. In developed nations, high 

technology exports emerged as a significant determinant of RE production, contrasting with 

developing countries where this factor showed no statistical significance. Additionally, the 

study found that oil prices had minimal impact on RE production across both groups. While 

GDP per capita exhibited a positive influence on RE production in both sets of countries, the 

impact of per capita CO2 emissions differed notably between developed and developing 

nations. These findings underscore the nuanced dynamics driving RE production in different 

economic contexts, emphasizing the need for tailored policy interventions to promote 

sustainable energy transitions globally. 



29 

 

In Alam et al., (2010b) study, the objective was to identify barriers hindering the successful 

development of the renewable energy technology (RET) sector and improving rural 

livelihoods in Bangladesh, which has significant potential for harnessing renewable energy 

sources. Through a critical review of policy and institutional settings, as well as lessons 

learned from pilot demonstrations of RET projects by various organizations, the research 

aimed to highlight the policy implications for decision-makers in formulating renewable 

energy policies and plans for the country. The methodology involved a comprehensive 

review of existing policies and institutional frameworks, as well as an analysis of the status 

and lessons learned from RET projects implemented in rural areas. The findings underscored 

the importance of careful planning and highlighted the economic, environmental, and social 

benefits that renewable energy could bring to remote rural communities. While the study 

provided valuable insights into the barriers and potential of RET in Bangladesh, further 

research is needed to delve deeper into specific challenges and to assess the long-term 

impacts of RET projects on rural livelihoods and sustainable development in the country. 

In Sen & Ganguly, (2017) study, the objective was to examine the opportunities, barriers, 

and related issues associated with renewable energy (RE) developments, considering its role 

in providing sustainable and clean energy while mitigating climate change. The study 

emphasized the importance of secure energy supplies at affordable rates with low 

environmental impacts and greenhouse gas emissions for socioeconomic development. 

Through an analysis of the present scenario, which included technological advancements, a 

broader understanding of renewable energy knowledge, and supportive government policies, 

the research aimed to highlight the potential of RE forms in meeting energy demands in a 

cleaner way. The methodology likely involved a review of existing literature, policy 



30 

 

documents, and possibly empirical data related to renewable energy development. The 

findings underscored the significance of positive support from governments and the need for 

favorable promoting policies to facilitate the development of RE forms. While the study 

provided valuable insights into the opportunities and challenges of RE development, further 

research could explore specific strategies for overcoming barriers and enhancing the uptake 

of renewable energy technologies to achieve sustainable social and economic development. 

2.3.3 Psychosocial factors 

Wagemann & Manetsgruber, (2016) explored risk management for the deployment of mini 

grids in far to reach areas. The study highlighted the importance of mini grids meeting 

customers' demand for high-quality service with whole day availability, relying on 

affordable pricing system and enough funding. One of the key challenges identified was the 

absence of a universally applicable risk management approach for mini grids. The risk 

management processes were found to face fundamental challenges, including complication, 

improbability, and a lack of responsiveness. The findings emphasized a diverse array of risks 

impacting mini-grid development, including political risks, the risk of non-payment, and 

variability in resource prices. However, it's essential to make a note of the study’s primary 

focus on risk management and did not encompass other factors identified by the TAM, 

suggesting a gap in the understanding of broader adoption dynamics beyond risk 

considerations. 

Wall et al., (2021) conducted a study in Thailand on the factors influencing consumers' 

adopting of RE. The study found that there was a significant positive association between 

consumers' intention to adopt off-grid energy and effectiveness. According to the study, 

perceptions of risk and trust had a positive influence on consumers adoption, whereas the 



31 

 

cost of RE had a negative but non-significant impact. The conclusion stressed the importance 

of considering a variety of elements when designing consumer adoption campaigns for 

renewable energy in Thailand, including attitudes about the benefits of renewable energy, 

environmental concern, perceptions of self-effectiveness, and awareness of the technology. 

Even though the study is being carried out in Thailand, there is a geographical difference in 

the knowledge of consumer attitudes and solar energy solution uptake.  

A survey that was carried out in six Indian cities; Bangalore, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, 

Delhi, Gandhinagar, and Pune identified a number of obstacles that solar PV systems face. 

In Nigeria, despite abundant solar irradiance and low electricity access, the utilization of 

solar PV remains limited. Factors contributing to this include insufficient research on solar 

initiatives, socio-cultural awareness issues, lack of financial assistance and mechanisms, 

legal barriers, and political instability. These factors have deterred potential investors in 

renewable energy within the country (Abdullahi et al., 2017). Sub-Saharan Africa, not 

including South Africa, faces low electricity access, especially in rural areas where less than 

10% have access, relying primarily on biomass. Despite the region's RE potential, there is a 

notable lack of penetration and investments. Barriers include subsidies on fossil-based 

generations without considering associated environmental and social costs, insufficient 

financial and policy support for renewable energy, and high upfront costs (Lopez et al., 

2012).  

In India, the development of RE initiatives has over time been significantly hindered by an 

inadequate institutional framework for financial management. This has instilled reluctance 

among investors to channel funds into RE projects. Moreover, the absence of standardized 

technical norms in the Indian selling places for small scale RE products is notable. Due to 



32 

 

this, the specifications required for renewable products in rural regions do not align with 

those obtainable in the marketplace. The lack of explicit directives with insufficient financial 

allotments from state electricity regulatory commissions further obstruct the planning and 

execution of renewable energy ventures. Additionally, bureaucratic procedures such as land 

acquisition, water, and environmental clearances entail prolonged durations, contributing to 

delays in the construction of renewable energy-based projects (Chauhan & Saini, 2015). 

Luthra et al., (2015) aimed to address the pressing need for India to adopt renewable and 

sustainable energy technologies amidst escalating energy demands and environmental 

concerns. Through an extensive literature review, the study identified and ranked 28 barriers 

to adoption, categorized into seven dimensions including Economical & Financial, Market, 

Awareness & Information, Technical, Ecological and Geographical, Cultural & Behavioral, 

and Political & Government Issues. Utilizing the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), 

expert opinions from academia and industry inform the ranking of these barriers, with 

sensitivity analysis employed to assess priority stability. The findings offered valuable 

insights for practitioners, regulators, and academics to focus their efforts on overcoming 

barriers to adoption, guiding policy formulation and strategy development towards 

widespread adoption of renewable and sustainable energy technologies in India. However, 

the study left room for further exploration into the dynamics of these barriers and their 

implications for effective adoption strategies. 

(Viardot, (2013) investigated the role of cooperatives in promoting the adoption of 

renewable energy (RE) by addressing barriers to its uptake. The objective was to identify 

specific barriers to RE adoption by consumers and assess how cooperatives circumvented 

these obstacles to facilitate RE use. Through a survey of 9 cooperatives in countries with 



33 

 

government subsidies for RE, the study revealed that cooperatives effectively mitigated 

barriers through community-based social marketing initiatives. These initiatives included 

educational communication, offering competitive prices, providing local services, and 

cooperative distribution. The findings underscored the significant contribution of 

cooperatives in promoting RE uptake. The study also proposed a framework for evaluating 

the impact of these initiatives on reducing barriers to RE adoption. However, further research 

is needed to explore the long-term sustainability and scalability of these cooperative-driven 

initiatives, as well as their applicability in different socio-economic contexts. 

Khan et al., (2020) study aimed to investigate the barriers to the growth of renewable energy 

technology (RET), particularly focusing on solar home systems (SHS), for rural 

electrification in Bangladesh. Recognizing the significance of energy in sustainable 

development, especially in light of increasing energy demand and environmental concerns, 

the research aimed to provide insights into promoting RET as an alternative to grid 

connectivity for non-electrified rural communities. The methodology involved the use of 

non-parametric tests and literature surveys, with data collected from 171 respondents in two 

dispersedly located villages in Noakhali and Sirajganj districts. The findings highlighted 

various modes of purchase for SHS, usage constraints, and both demand-side and supply-

side barriers such as lack of promotional activities, economic conditions, awareness gaps, 

and financial constraints. The study's insights contribute to outlining a policy framework for 

facilitating the widespread adoption of RET in off-grid regions, addressing the identified 

barriers and promoting sustainable rural electrification. Despite these contributions, further 

research is needed to explore additional factors influencing the adoption of RET and to 

develop more tailored policy interventions for rural electrification in Bangladesh. 



34 

 

A study done Nevzorova & Kutcherov, (2019) aimed to identify and classify barriers 

hindering the widespread adoption of biogas as a source of energy. To achieve this, a 

systematic review of barriers based on the Scopus database was conducted, categorizing 

them into technical, economic, market, institutional, socio-cultural, and environmental 

barriers across developed and developing economies. The methodology involved analyzing 

these barriers within different contexts to identify the most frequent and crucial constraints 

faced by the biogas industry, along with proposing potential solutions. The findings 

underscored the significance of stakeholder involvement, particularly from the private 

sector, government, financial institutions, R&D institutions, lobby groups, media, and local 

communities, in addressing the identified barriers. Notably, collaboration among 

stakeholders was emphasized as essential for overcoming these obstacles and advancing 

biogas energy for sustainable development. The research highlighted the urgent need for 

coordinated efforts and knowledge-sharing to effectively tackle environmental protection 

challenges associated with biogas adoption. However, further research is needed to explore 

additional strategies for mitigating these barriers and fostering biogas utilization on a broader 

scale. 

2.3.4 Technological factors  

Perceived Usefulness of technology (PU) is defined as the extent to which an individual 

belief that the use of solar technologies for instance would lead to an improvement his or her 

job outputs (Davis, 1989).  

In a study conducted by Yen et al., (2010) focused on examining the enablers of users' 

intentions to use the well covered wireless technologies within their organizations of 

employment. The researchers employed the Task Technology Fit (TTF) model in 



35 

 

conjunction with the TAM to conduct the study. Sample questionnaires were distributed to 

various organizations in the industry. The findings showed that both PEOU and PU 

considerably influenced the adoption and diffusion of wireless technology. 

Mainali & Silveira, ( 2015) finding revealed that technological barriers included challenges 

such as limited energy access in far to reach areas, a lack of databases for resource valuation, 

a relatively low maturity level of RE sources, and the necessity for energy storage with 

renewable bases. The difficulty of providing energy access to rural areas was compounded 

by the fact that many unelectrified villages and hamlets were situated in remote hilly terrains. 

To ensure a continuous energy supply in these rural regions, there was a need for detailed 

and credible information on renewable sources. However, the Uttarakhand state had only a 

limited number of monitoring stations for measuring key parameters such as wind speed, 

solar radiation, and mean rainfall.  

In Santiago, Chile, where favorable market conditions for individual’s usage of photovoltaic 

(PV) technology exist, there is surprisingly minimal uptake. To investigate this phenomenon, 

a Delphi study engaged a panel of experts, identifying 26 important factors, including those 

related to motivation and those which could be a barring the influence PV diffusion in 

Santiago. Of these, 21 factors reached consensus on their relative importance. Literature 

suggests that PV diffusion is influenced largely by technical factors, issues related to 

economic challenges and those with social complexities, which were reflected in the experts' 

discussions on financial, environmental, and energy supply factors. Emerging barriers were 

attributed to financial, technical, institutional, and knowledge domains. Notably, financial 

motivations, such as subsidies, and barriers, such as high upfront costs, were deemed pivotal, 

while environmental motivations like environment systematic and clear stewardship and 



36 

 

technical related challenges such as concerns with roof construction were considered less 

significant. However, the study's focus on Santiago may limit the applicability of its findings 

to regions with different socio-economic and cultural contexts. A broader geographical scope 

could provide a better understanding of the major important factors influencing PV adoption 

(Walters et al., 2018). 

Bhattacharyya & Palit, (2021) critically assessed the grid-off grid discourse, exploring the 

dynamics and interconnections among various electricity access alternatives. Even if a 

comprehensive critical examination, the analysis revealed that models incorporating detailed 

resolution, particularly accounting for inadequate power supply infrastructure, tended to 

favor decentralized electricity technologies. Conversely, aggregated analyses, particularly in 

densely populated areas and scenarios with higher energy demand, tended to endorse central 

grid extension as the preferred solution. Notably, the review underscored the significant 

impact of assumptions, data limitations, technology choices, and model flexibility on these 

outcomes. Key shortcomings identified included the omission of grid system generation 

costs, insufficient village-level information, biases towards specific technologies and scales, 

and a lack of consideration for social equity. In emphasizing the pursuit of universal 

electrification, the review underscored the importance of strong leadership, an enabling 

environment, a robust regulatory framework, and an inclusive approach that supports 

alternative options. 

Chauhan & Saini, (2015) study found that In Uttarakhand state; there was a shortage of 

skilled manpower in the arena of RE. Experts and experienced technicians exhibited low 

motivation to offer services rural places unless offered remuneration which is attractive and 

other enhanced motivation package. The functioning and continuance of small-scale RE 



37 

 

projects posed challenges, particularly in remote areas where most villages were situated. 

Micro hydro power plants, for instance, required consistent year in year out maintenance for 

hydro turbines, generators, and controlling equipment. Additionally, the presence of pine 

trees in the state's forests meant that the compilation, management, and moving of pine 

needles proved challenging, especially in far to reach hilly places.  

Wojuola & Alant, (2019) aimed to investigate the technical hurdles obstructing the embrace 

of Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) among the Nigerian populace. Employing a 

convergent parallel mixed-method research design, the study gathered data through both 

quantitative surveys and qualitative focus group interviews. Analysis of the data revealed 

four primary technical barriers: accessibility, complexity, maintenance, and durability, 

underscoring significant challenges impeding the widespread acceptance of RETs in Nigeria. 

The study emphasized the critical need to address these barriers to facilitate the successful 

deployment of RETs. However, while the empirical literature review focused on Oyo State, 

Nigeria, there remains a research gap in exploring similar issues in other regions like Kisii 

County, Kenya, suggesting the necessity for further investigations across diverse 

geographical contexts to glean comprehensive insights into promoting RET adoption. 

Khan et al., (2021) aimed to assess the short-term and long-term impacts of technological 

innovation, finance, and foreign direct investment (FDI) on renewable energy, non-

renewable energy, and CO2 emissions across 69 countries participating in the Belt and Road 

Initiative (BRI) from 2000 to 2014. Utilizing robust standard error regression and dynamic 

GMM estimators, the findings indicated that technological innovations, economic growth, 

and FDI had a negative influence on renewable energy adoption, while financial 

developments positively impacted the renewable energy sector in the BRI countries. 



38 

 

Additionally, there was a positive association between technological innovation, FDI, and 

economic growth with energy use and CO2 emissions. The Granger non-causality test 

revealed reciprocal causal relationships among renewable energy, technological innovation, 

finance, and FDI. The study's practical implications highlight the importance of promoting 

financial markets in BRI countries to foster renewable energy development and economic 

growth while reducing CO2 emissions. Moreover, the findings underscore the need for 

increased investment in research and development (R&D) of technological innovations 

within these nations. Despite these insights, further research is warranted to explore 

additional factors influencing renewable energy adoption and to develop more targeted 

policy interventions in the context of the Belt and Road Initiative. 

2.4 Summary and Research Gap 

The literature review summary (Table 2.4) on the adoption of OGRETs highlights the 

multifaceted nature of factors influencing adoption across various socio-economic and 

environmental contexts. The review of literature on renewable energy adoption and barriers 

reveals several critical gaps that serve as the foundation for the current research. Firstly, 

geographical variability emerges as a significant factor, with many studies focusing on 

specific regions like India, Nigeria, or Chile, limiting the generalizability of findings to other 

contexts such as Kisii County, Kenya (Wojuola & Alant, 2019; Santiago et al., 2018; Khan 

et al., 2021). Consequently, there is a pressing need for research that encompasses other 

geographical settings to understand the unique challenges and opportunities in renewable 

energy adoption (Khan et al., 2021). 

Secondly, technical barriers such as accessibility, complexity, maintenance, and durability 

of renewable energy technologies are recurrent themes across various studies (Wojuola & 



39 

 

Alant, 2019). However, there is a lack of comprehensive exploration into these technical 

barriers and their nuanced impacts on adoption, particularly in rural areas where these 

challenges may be amplified (Mainali & Silveira, 2015). This highlights the necessity for 

further investigation into the specific technical challenges faced by communities in regions 

like Kisii County, Kenya. 

Policy and institutional frameworks are also highlighted as crucial factors influencing 

renewable energy adoption (Chauhan & Saini, 2015). Nevertheless, there is a gap in 

understanding the specific mechanisms through which policy interventions and institutional 

support facilitate or hinder adoption, especially in regions with limited government 

incentives like Kisii County, Kenya (Nyarko et al., 2023). Addressing this gap requires a 

more nuanced examination of the policy landscape and its implications for renewable energy 

initiatives. 

Moreover, economic barriers such as high initial costs and lack of financing options are 

consistently identified across studies (Khan et al., 2021). However, there is a need for in-

depth analyses to uncover the intricate interactions between financial constraints, economic 

viability, and consumer behavior, particularly in low-income communities (Nyarko et al., 

2023). Understanding the economic drivers and constraints specific to regions like Kisii 

County is essential for designing effective interventions to promote renewable energy 

adoption. 

Furthermore, while some studies assess short-term impacts of renewable energy adoption, 

there is a gap in research investigating the long-term sustainability of initiatives 

(Bhattacharyya & Palit, 2021). Longitudinal studies are needed to track the evolution and 

outcomes of renewable energy projects over time, particularly in terms of economic viability, 



40 

 

environmental conservation, and social equity (Bhattacharyya & Palit, 2021). By addressing 

these gaps, the current research aims to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the 

factors influencing renewable energy adoption and to develop context-specific strategies for 

promoting sustainable energy transitions in regions like Kisii County, Kenya.  



41 

 

Table 2.4: Summary of the literature reviewed   

Author Objective Methodology Findings Research Gap 

Alam Hossain 

Mondal et al., 

(2010) 

Identify drivers, barriers, 

and strategies for 

implementation of 

renewable energy 

technologies in rural areas 

in Bangladesh 

A critical review of policy and 

institutional settings 

Successive projects consider local 

conditions, including demand 

patterns, existing knowledge and 

skills, and financial situations. 

They implement specific financial 

mechanisms, training initiatives, 

and opportunities for income 

generation 

Difference in research 

setting and context thus 

cannot be generalized for 

Kenya context  

Billanes & 

Enevoldsen, 

(2021) 

Determine factors 

influencing individuals’ 

decisions of 

technology acceptance and 

adoption 

Extensive literature 

review 

Highlighted ten influential factors 

affecting user’s decision to accept 

and adopt 

technology namely knowledge, 

awareness, policy, social influence, 

demographics, self-efficacy, trust, 

enjoyment, perceived risk and 

compatibility 

The study had a general 

focus on technology 

acceptance and adoption 

including renewable 

energy technology with 

other technologies  

Takase et al., 

(2021) 

Comprehensive review of 

energy scenario and 

sustainable energy in 

Kenya 

A comprehensive review There is a significant reliance on 

wood for fuel and the other biomass 

accounting 

for 68% of overall energy usage. 

The study identified challenges in 

accessibility to the modern energy, 

high pressure on biomass supplies, 

rising energy prices, 

high demand for electricity than the 

available capacity 

Did not narrow its focus 

to off-grid renewable 

energy technologies  



42 

 

Asante et al., 

(2020) 

To investigate the 

impediments to renewable 

energy development in 

Ghana and provide 

recommendations for policy 

formulation. 

Utilizing Multi-Objective 

Optimization based on Ratio 

Analysis (MULTIMOORA) 

integrated with Evaluation 

based on Distance from 

Average Solution (EDAS) 

method 

Political and regulatory barriers 

were identified as the most 

significant obstacles, with 

corruption and nepotism emerging 

as critical hurdles. 

Recommendations included 

specific renewable energy 

standards, grid connection quotas, 

and streamlined certification 

procedures, advocating for a 

bottom-up approach to policy 

formulation. 

Further exploration is 

needed to understand 

nuanced dynamics 

within each barrier 

category and their 

implications for 

effective policy 

implementation and 

sustainable renewable 

energy development 

Shahzad et al., 

(2023) 

To identify and rank 

obstacles hindering the 

expansion of solar power in 

Pakistan and provide 

recommendations for policy 

development. 

Utilizing a spherical fuzzy 

analytical hierarchy process 

Economic obstacles were identified 

as the most significant, constituting 

21.46% of the total obstacles, with 

budget constraints, lack of access to 

credit/capital, political instability, 

high investment risk and operation 

cost, and partnership issues 

identified as the top five critical 

sub-obstacles. Recommendations 

were provided to address these 

obstacles, offering policy 

implications for 

Further research is 

needed to delve deeper 

into the effectiveness of 

proposed solutions and 

address any remaining 

gaps in understanding 

the challenges hindering 

solar energy adoption in 

Pakistan 

Zeng et al., 

(2022) 

To examine the significant 

factors influencing people's 

acceptance of OGRETs 

Employing structural equation 

modeling 

Environment-related concerns, 

awareness on green energy 

technologies, candidness to new 

experiences, and perceived benefits 

of GETs positively influenced 

The findings may not be 

universally applicable to 

all settings, especially in 

middle-income countries 

like Kenya, highlighting 



43 

 

consumers' inclination to adopt 

these technologies. However, 

projected costs linked with green 

energy technologies and 

discomfort associated with their 

adoption had a negative impact on 

consumer adoption. 

the need for further 

exploration in the Kisii 

County context 

Nyarko et al., 

(2023) 

To examine the catalysts 

and obstacles faced by 

OGREs initiatives in West 

Africa and provide insights 

for overcoming them 

Utilizing a comprehensive 

framework encompassing 

Political, Economic, Social, 

Technical, Legal, and 

Environmental dimensions 

(PESTLE challenges) 

Economic hurdles posed the most 

significant impediments to the 

sustainable advancement of 

OGREs powered systems in West 

Africa. The results further unveiled 

intricate interconnections and 

patterns among these challenges, 

underscoring the necessity of 

considering the broader landscape 

rather than fixating solely on the 

most immediate issues. 

The study primarily 

concentrated on 

institutional hindrances 

and did not delve into the 

intricacies of consumer 

behavior, suggesting a 

potential gap in 

comprehending the 

factors influencing end-

users in adopting off-

grid renewable energy 

Bamati & 

Raoofi, (2020) 

To conduct a 

comprehensive 

examination of the factors 

influencing renewable 

energy (RE) production, 

focusing on technological, 

economic, and 

environmental variables 

Employing Generalized Least 

Square (GLS) panel data 

estimation method 

The determinants of RE sources 

varied based on the income level of 

the countries. In developed nations, 

high technology exports emerged 

as a significant determinant of RE 

production, contrasting with 

developing countries where this 

factor showed no statistical 

significance. Additionally, the 

study found that oil prices had 

minimal impact on RE production 

The study highlights the 

nuanced dynamics 

driving RE production in 

different economic 

contexts, emphasizing 

the need for tailored 

policy interventions to 

promote sustainable 

energy transitions 

globally 



44 

 

across both groups. While GDP per 

capita exhibited a positive 

influence on RE production in both 

sets of countries, the impact of per 

capita CO2 emissions differed 

notably between developed and 

developing nations 

Sen & Ganguly, 

(2017) 

To examine the 

opportunities, barriers, and 

related issues associated 

with renewable energy (RE) 

developments, considering 

its role in providing 

sustainable and clean 

energy while mitigating 

climate change 

Involved a review of existing 

literature, policy documents, 

and possibly empirical data 

related to renewable energy 

development 

The study emphasized the 

importance of secure energy 

supplies at affordable rates with 

low environmental impacts and 

greenhouse gas emissions for 

socioeconomic development. 

Positive support from governments 

and favorable promoting policies 

were identified as critical factors 

facilitating the development of RE 

forms 

Further research could 

explore specific 

strategies for 

overcoming barriers and 

enhancing the uptake of 

renewable energy 

technologies to achieve 

sustainable social and 

economic development 

in Kenya 

Psychosocial 

factors - 

Wagemann & 

Manetsgruber, 

(2016) 

To explore risk 

management for the 

deployment of mini grids in 

far to reach areas 

Involved an exploration of 

existing literature and 

empirical data related to risk 

management in mini-grid 

deployment 

The study highlighted the 

importance of mini-grids meeting 

customers' demand for high-quality 

service with whole day availability, 

relying on affordable pricing 

system, and enough funding. Key 

challenges included the absence of 

a universally applicable risk 

management approach for mini 

grids, facing fundamental 

challenges such as complication, 

Limited focus on 

developing a universally 

applicable risk 

management approach 

for mini grids, 

addressing fundamental 

challenges such as 

complication, 

improbability, and